imtoken2.0钱包下载安装|hydrogen

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2024-03-07 19:13:22

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氢（化学元素）_百度百科

元素）_百度百科网页新闻贴吧知道网盘图片视频地图文库资讯采购百科百度首页登录注册进入词条全站搜索帮助首页秒懂百科特色百科知识专题加入百科百科团队权威合作下载百科APP个人中心氢是一个多义词，请在下列义项上选择浏览（共2个义项）展开添加义项氢[qīng]播报讨论上传视频化学元素收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10氢（Hydrogenium），是一种化学元素，元素符号H，在元素周期表中位于第一位。氢通常的单质形态是氢气，无色无味无臭，是一种极易燃烧的由双原子分子组成的气体，氢气是最轻的气体。医学上用氢气来治疗疾病。 [1]氢气的爆炸极限为4.0~74.2%（氢气的体积占混合气总体积比）。中文名氢外文名HydrogenHydrogenium分子量2.01588（注：氢气分子有两个原子，氢原子量为1.00794）CAS登录号1333-74-0EINECS登录号215-605-7熔点-259 ℃沸点-253 ℃水溶性0.00017g/100mL密度0.07 g/cm³ [3]（-252℃）外观无色应用用作合成氨、合成甲醇、合成盐酸的原料，冶金用还原剂等安全性描述S16/33：远离火源，采取防护措施防止静电发生危险性符号F+：很易燃物质危险性描述R12：极端易燃UN危险货物编号UN1049/1966/2034/2600化合价-1、0、+1元素符号H原子序数1区s区周期第一周期族IA族电子排布1s1电负性2.20（鲍林标度）目录1历史发展2含量分布3物化属性▪元素简介▪基本属性▪原子属性▪具体性质▪同位素▪图表▪氢气生物学效应4制取方法▪工业制法▪元素纯化5贮存方法6作用用途▪工业生产▪医学用途▪天然气▪太阳能▪氢能▪氢能简介▪风力▪生物燃油▪煤矿7科学研究8世界纪录历史发展播报编辑早在十六世纪，瑞士的一名医生就发现了氢气。他说：“把铁屑投到硫酸里，就会产生气泡，像旋风一样腾空而起。”他还发现这种气体可以燃烧。然而他是一位著名的医生，病人很多，没有时间去做进一步的研究。十七世纪时又有一位医生发现了氢气。但那时人们认为不管什么气体都不能单独存在，既不能收集，也不能进行测量。这位医生认为氢气与空气没有什么不同，很快就放弃了研究。最先把氢气收集起来并进行认真研究的是在1766年英国的一位化学家卡文迪什。卡文迪什非常喜欢化学实验，有一次实验中，他不小心把一个铁片掉进了盐酸中，他正在为自己的粗心而懊恼时，却发现盐酸溶液中有气泡产生，这个情景一下子吸引了他。他又做了几次实验，把一定量的锌和铁投到充足的盐酸和稀硫酸中（每次用的硫酸和盐酸的质量是不同的），发现所产生的气体量是固定不变的。这说明这种新的气体的产生与所用酸的种类没有关系，与酸的浓度也没有关系。氢气卡文迪什用排水法收集了新气体，他发现这种气体不能帮助蜡烛的燃烧，也不能帮助动物的呼吸，如果把它和空气混合在一起，一遇火星就会爆炸。卡文迪什经过多次实验终于发现了这种新气体与普通空气混合后发生爆炸的极限。他在论文中写道：如果这种可燃性气体的含量在9.5%以下或65%以上，点火时虽然会燃烧，但不会爆炸。随后不久他测出了这种气体的比重，接着又发现这种气体燃烧后的产物是水，无疑这种气体就是氢气了。卡文迪什的研究已经比较细致，他只需对外界宣布他发现了一种氢元素并给它起一个名称就行了。但卡文迪什受了“燃素说”的影响，坚持认为水是一种元素，不承认自己无意中发现了一种新元素。后来拉瓦锡听说了这件事，他重复了卡文迪什的实验，认为水不是一种元素而是氢和氧的化合物。在1787年，他正式提出“氢”是一种元素，因为氢燃烧后的产物是水，便用拉丁文把它命名为“水的生成者”。 [1]2016年1月，英国爱丁堡大学科学家利用钻石对顶砧制造出某种极端高压状态，从而生成“第五状态氢”，即氢的固体金属状态。这种状态的氢通常存在于大型行星或太阳内核之中，分子分离成单原子，电子的行为特征像金属电子一样。含量分布播报编辑氢的原子光谱在地球上和地球大气中只存在极稀少的游离状态氢。在地壳里，如果按质量计算，氢只占总质量的1%，而如果按原子百分数计算，则占17%。氢在自然界中分布很广，水便是氢的“仓库”——氢在水中的质量分数为11%；泥土中约有1.5%的氢；石油、天然气、动植物体也含氢。在空气中，氢气倒不多，约占总体积的一千万分之五。在整个宇宙中，按原子百分数来说，氢却是最多的元素。据研究，在太阳的大气中，按原子百分数计算，氢占81.75%。在宇宙空间中，氢原子的数目比其他所有元素原子的总和约大100倍。 [1]物化属性播报编辑元素简介氢是原子序数为1的化学元素，化学符号为H，在元素周期表中位于第一位。其原子质量为1.00794u，是最轻的元素，也是宇宙中含量最多的元素，大约占据宇宙质量的75%。主星序上恒星的主要成分都是等离子态的氢。而在地球上，自然条件形成的游离态的氢单质相对罕见。 [2]氢最常见的同位素是氕（piē），含1个质子，不含中子。在离子化合物中，氢原子可以得一个电子成为氢阴离子（以H-表示）构成氢化物，也可以失去一个电子成为氢阳离子（以H+表示，简称氢离子），但氢离子实际上以更为复杂的形式存在。氢与除稀有气体外的几乎所有元素都可形成化合物，存在于水和几乎所有的有机物中。它在酸碱化学中尤为重要，酸碱反应中常存在氢离子的交换。氢作为最简单的原子，在原子物理中有特别的理论价值。对氢原子的能级、成键等的研究在量子力学的发展中起了关键作用。 [2]氢气（H2）最早于16世纪初被人工合成，当时用的方法是将金属置于强酸中。1766～81年，亨利·卡文迪许发现氢气是一种与以往所发现气体不同的另一种气体，在燃烧时产生水，这一性质也决定了拉丁语“hydrogenium”这个名字（“生成水的物质”之意）。常温常压下，氢气是一种极易燃烧，无色透明、无臭无味的气体。氢原子则有极强的还原性。在高温下氢非常活泼。除稀有气体元素外，几乎所有的元素都能与氢生成化合物。 [2]基本属性物质状态气态元素在太阳中的含量75%地壳中含量1.5%大气含量0.0001%质子质量1.673×10-27 [4]质子相对质量1.00794所属周期1所属族数IA摩尔质量1g/mol氧化物H2O最高价氧化物H2O原子属性外围电子排布1s1核外电子排布1电子层K原子量1.00794原子半径（计算值）25(53)pm共价半径37pm范德华半径120pm具体性质颜色常温下为无色气体熔点14.025K（-259.125℃）沸点20.268K（-252.882℃）三相点13.8033K（-259℃）7.042kPa临界点32.97K(-240℃)1.293MPa摩尔体积22.4L/mol汽化热0.44936kJ/mol熔化热0.05868kJ/mol蒸气压209帕斯卡（23K）比热容14000J/（kg·℃）声速1270m/s（293.15K）电离能（kJ/mol）M-M+1312密度、硬度0.0899kg/m³（273K）、NA热导率180.5W/（m·K）同位素氢是唯一的其同位素有不同的名称的元素。（历史上每种元素的不同同位素都有不同的名称，现已不再使用。）D和T也可以用作氘（deuterium）和氚（tritium）的符号，但P已作为磷的符号，故不再作为氕（protium）的符号。按照IUPAC的指引，D或2H和T或3H都可以使用，但推荐使用2H和3H（同位素相对原子质量不同），生活中通常使用氕。氢在自然界中存在的同位素有：氕（piē）（氢1，H）氘（dāo）（氢2，重氢，D）氚（chuān）（氢3，超重氢，T）以人工方法合成的同位素有：氢-4、氢-5、氢-6、氢-7氕（氢-1）氕的原子核只有一个质子，丰度达99.98%，是构造最简单的的原子。 [1]氘（氢-2）氘为氢的一种稳定形态同位素，也被称为重氢，元素符号一般为2H或D。它的原子核由一颗质子和一颗中子组成。在大自然的含量约为一般氢的7000分之一。氢(H)的同位素，其相对原子质量为普通氢的二倍，少量的存在于天然水中，用于核反应，并在化学和生物学的研究工作中作示踪原子（deuterium）——亦称“重氢”，元素符号为D。氚（氢-3）氚，亦称超重氢，是氢的同位素之一，元素符号为T或3H。它的原子核由一颗质子和两颗中子所组成，并带有放射性，会发生β衰变，其半衰期为12.43年。自然界中存在极微，从核反应制得，主要用于热核反应。氢-4氢-4，是氢的同位素之一，它包含了一个质子和三个中子。在实验室里，是用氘的原子核来轰炸氚的原子核，来合成一个氢-4的原子核。在这过程中，氚的原子核会从氘的原子核上吸收一个中子。氢-4的质量为4.0279121u，半衰期为9.93696×10-22秒。氢-4.1氢-4.1结构上类似氦，它包含了2个质子和2个中子，但因其中一个电子是渺子，但由于渺子的轨道特殊，轨道非常接近原子核，而最内侧的电子轨道与渺子的轨道相较之下在很外侧，因此，该渺子可视为原子核的一部份，所以整个原子可视为：原子核由1个渺子、2个质子和2个中子组成、外侧只有一个电子，因此可以视为一种氢的同位素，也是一种奇异原子。一个渺子重约0.1u，故名氢-4.1（4.1H）。氢-4.1原子可以与其他元素反应，和行为更像一个氢原子不像惰性的氦原子。氢-5氢-5，是氢的同位素之一，它的原子核包含了四个中子和一个质子，在实验室里用一个氚的原子核来轰炸氚，这让氚吸收两个氚原子核的中子而形成了氢-5。氢-5的半衰期非常短，只有8.01930×10-22秒。氢-6氢-6，是不稳定的氢同位素之一，它包含了一个质子和五个中子，半衰期为3×10-22秒。氢-7氢-7，是不稳定的氢同位素之一，它包含了一个质子和六个中子。图表符号质子数中子数原子质量单位(u)半衰期原子核自旋丰度丰度的变化率1H101.007,825,032,07(10)稳定[＞2.8×1023年]1/2+0.999885(70)0.999816～0.9999742H112.0141017778(4)稳定1+0.000115(70)0.000026～0.0001843H123.0160492777(25)12.32(2)年1/2+4H134.02781(11)1.39(10)×10-22s[4.6(9)MeV]2-5H145.03531(11)＞9.1×10-22s(1/2+)6H156.04494(28)2.90(70)×10-22s[1.6(4)MeV]2-#7H167.05275(108)#2.3(6)×10-23#s[20(5)#MeV]1/2+#备注：画上#号的数据代表没有经过实验的证明，只是理论推测而已，而用括号括起来的代表数据不确定性。氢气生物学效应早在1975年就有人开展了氢气治疗肿瘤的研究，后来2001年才有法国学者将高压氢用于治疗肝脏寄生虫感染的研究。早期的研究只能简单地观察氢气被动物呼吸后的反应，显然观察结果证明氢气对动物没有产生显著的影响。关于氢气的生物学效应，最热闹地当然属于潜水医学，因为氢气作为人类潜水呼吸的气体被国际许多重要的潜水医学研究单位深入研究，作为呼吸气体的最重要前提是该气体的安全性，就是不能对人体产生明显的影响，包括在极端高压下呼吸这种气体。许多年的潜水医学研究证明呼吸氢气是非常安全的，但也同时给人们一种深刻印象，呼吸氢气对人体是没有明显生物学效应的。2007年日本学者报道，动物呼吸2%的氢可有效清除强毒性自由基，显著改善脑缺血再灌注损伤，采用化学反应、细胞学手段证明，氢溶解在液体中可选择性中和羟自由基和亚硝酸阴离子。而后两者是氧化损伤的最重要介质，体内缺乏他们的清除机制，是多种疾病发生的重要基础。随后他们又用肝缺血和心肌缺血动物模型，证明呼吸2%的氢可以治疗肝和心肌缺血再灌注损伤。采用饮用饱和氢水可治疗应激引起的神经损伤和基因缺陷氧化应激动物的慢性氧化损伤。美国匹兹堡大学器官移植中心学者Nakao等随后证明，呼吸2%的氢可以治疗小肠移植引起的炎症损伤，饮用饱和氢水可治疗心脏移植后心肌损伤、肾脏移植后慢性肾病。国内第四军医大学谢克亮等的研究证明，呼吸氢气能治疗动物系统炎症、多器官功能衰竭和急性颅脑损伤。孙学军等的研究也证明，呼吸2%的氢可以治疗新生儿脑缺血缺氧损伤。随后，孙学军等成功制备了饱和氢注射液，并与国内40多家实验室开展合作，先后发现该注射液对疼痛、关节炎、急性胰腺炎、老年性痴呆、慢性氧中毒、一氧化碳中毒迟发性脑病、肝硬化、脂肪肝、脊髓创伤、慢性低氧、腹膜炎、结肠炎、新生儿脑缺血缺氧损伤、心肌缺血再灌注损伤、肾缺血再灌注损伤和小肠缺血再灌注损伤等具有良好的治疗作用。这些研究说明，氢是一种理想的自由基、特别是毒性自由基的良好清除剂，具有潜在的临床应用前景。 [1]制取方法播报编辑工业制法水煤气法：除此之外，还有电解法、烃裂解法、烃蒸气转化法等。实验室制法锌与稀硫酸反应：若用盐酸，制得的氢气中可能会混有氯化氢气体（HCl），因为稀盐酸也有一定的挥发性。金属若用铁或镁，反应速率会影响实验观察效果。其他制法：元素纯化随着半导体工业、精细化工和光电纤维工业的发展，产生了对高纯氢的需求。例如，半导体生产工艺需要使用99.999%以上的高纯氢。但是工业上各种制氢方法所得到的氢气纯度不高，为满足工业上对各种高纯氢的需求，必须对氢气进行进一步的纯化。氢气的纯化方法大致可分为两类（物理法和化学法），氢气提纯方法主要有低温吸附法，低温液化法，金属氢化物氢净化法；此外还有钯膜扩散法，中空纤维膜扩散法和变压吸附法等六种方法。方法基本原理适用原料气制得氢气浓（%）适用规格高压催化法氢与氧发生反应而去除氧含氧的氢气，主要是电解法制得的氢气99.999小金属氢化物分离法先使氢与金属形成金属氢化物之后，加热或减压使其分解氢含量较低的气体＞99.9999中小高压吸附法吸附剂选择吸附杂质任何含氢气体99.999大低温分离法低温下使气体冷凝任何含氢气体90～98大钯合金薄膜扩散法钯合金薄膜对氢有选择渗透性，其他气体不能透过氢含量较低的气体＞99.9999中小聚合物薄膜扩散法气体透过薄膜的扩散速率不同炼油厂废气92～98小 [1]贮存方法播报编辑氢是一种能量密度很高的清洁可再生能源，但其特殊性质导致难以常温常压储存，泄漏后有爆炸危险。若能突破储存技术便可以广泛用于各种动力设备。中国利用特殊溶液大量吸收氢气，一立方米可以吸收超过50公斤，平常可以稳定储存，加入催化剂便可释放氢气，储氢材料可重复使用2000次。该技术国际领先，或引发氢能利用革命。保存氢气方法很多，但是高效的储氢方法主要有：液化储氢（成本太高，而且需要很高的能量维持其液化）；压缩储氢（重量密度和体积密度都很低）；金属氢化物储氢（体积存储密度较高，但是重量密度低），还有一个是现在正在研究的碳纳米管吸附储氢。(已经证明在室温和不到1bar（约一个大气压）的压力下，单壁碳管可以吸附5%-10%，多壁碳纳米管储氢可达14%，但是这些报道都受到了质疑，原因是目前尚未建立一个世界上公认的检测碳纳米管储氢的检测标准。)目前根据理论推算和反复验证，大家普遍认为可逆储/放氢量在5%（质量密度百分比）左右，但是即使是只有5%也是迄今为止最好的储氢材料。氢的储运技术是制约氢能发展的最主要技术瓶颈，目前其研究主要集中在高压储氧罐、轻金属材料、复杂氢化物材料、有机液态材料等氢储运技术。将氢气经特殊处理溶解在液态材料中，实现氢能的常态化、安全化应用，甚至用普通矿泉水瓶也能装运，这一愿景正在逐渐接近现实。业界认为该技术处于国际领先水平，并有可能引发氢能利用革命。2014年9月9日，中国地质大学（武汉）可持续能源实验室开发的液态储氢技术已经完成了实验室阶段的研究，正准备进行大规模中试和工程化试验。团队利用不饱和芳香化合物催化加氢的方法，成功攻克了氢能在常温常压下难以贮存和释放这一技术瓶颈，实现了氢能液态常温常压运输，而且克服了传统高压运输高成本、高风险的弊病，所储氢在温和条件下加催化剂释放后即可使用。储氢材料的技术性能指标超过了美国能源部颁布的车用储氢材料标准。实验室研究显示，储氢分子熔点可低至-20℃，能在150℃左右实现高效催化加氢，并在常温常压下进行储存和运输；催化脱氢温度低于200℃，脱氢过程产生氢的纯度可高达99.99%，并且不产生CO、NH3等其他气体；储氢材料循环寿命高、可逆性强（高于2000次）；质量储氢容量＞5.5wt%，体积容量＞50kg(H2)·m-3。程寒松告诉记者，所用催化剂无需再生即可重复使用，5年内无需更新。作用用途播报编辑氢是重要工业原料，如生产合成氨和甲醇，也用来提炼石油，氢化有机物质作为收缩气体，用在氧氢焰熔接器和火箭燃料中。在高温下用氢将金属氧化物还原以制取金属较之其他方法，产品的性质更易控制，同时金属的纯度也高。广泛用于钨、钼、钴、铁等金属粉末和锗、硅的生产。由于氢气很轻，人们利用它来制作氢气球。氢气与氧气化合时，放出大量的热，被利用来进行切割金属。 [1]利用氢的同位素氘和氚的原子核聚变时产生的能量能生产杀伤和破坏性极强的氢弹，其威力比原子弹大得多。清洁能源，用于汽车等的燃料。为此，美国于2002年还提出了“国家氢动力计划”。但是由于技术还不成熟，还没有进行大批的工业化应用。2003年科学家发现，使用氢燃料会使大气层中的氢增加约4～8倍。认为可能会让同温层的上端更冷、云层更多，还会加剧臭氧洞的扩大。但是一些因素也可抵销这种影响，如使用氯氟甲烷的减少、土壤的吸收、以及燃料电池的新技术的开发等。在常温下，氢比较不活泼，但可用合适的催化剂使之活化。在高温下，氢是高度活泼的。除稀有气体元素外，几乎所有的元素都能与氢生成化合物。非金属元素的氢化物通常称为某化氢，如卤化氢、硫化氢等；金属元素的氢化物称为金属氢化物，如氢化锂、氢化钙等。氢是重要的工业原料，又是未来的能源，也是最清洁的燃料。氢的同位素氘和氚可应用于核聚变，提供能量，因为技术原因，核聚变发电还无法大量应用。 [2]工业生产不同的氢气生产方法有不同的固定投资额和边际成本。制氢的能源和燃料可以来自多种来源例如天然气、核能、太阳能、风力、生物燃料、煤矿、其他化石燃料、地热。医学用途一、氢气治疗疾病的概况2007年，Ohsawa的关于氢气选择性抗氧化和对大鼠脑缺血治疗作用的报道是该领域具有开创意义的工作。虽然早在1975年和2001年就有关于氢气抗氧化的报道，但2001年是研究呼吸800kpa氢气14天的效应，而2007年报道是呼吸2kPa氢气不足1小时的效应，两者分压相差400倍，呼吸时间相差600倍，所以这绝对是完全不同性质的工作。该研究将大鼠中动脉临时阻断90分钟（将一根缝合线插到大脑中动脉起始段），然后再灌流，这是经典的脑中风动物模型，类似脑缺血后再恢复血流的情况。在恢复血液供应前5分钟开始给动物呼吸含氢气1、2、4%的混合气体35分钟，结果发现动物脑组织坏死体积非常显著地减少。日本学者将这种作用归因于氢气可以选择性中和羟基自由基（羟基自由基是生物体毒性最强的自由基），尽管氢气也可以中和亚硝酸阴离子，但作用比较弱。该文章发表后，迅速引起国际上的广泛关注，大批临床和基础医学学者迅速跟进，到现在已经有63个疾病类型被证明可以被氢气有效治疗。每年氢气生物学文章数量，如2007年3篇、2008年15篇、2009年26篇、2010年50篇、2011年63篇、2012年95篇，呈现爆发式增长。氢气的分子效应可在多种组织和疾病存在，例如大脑、脊髓、眼、耳、肺、心、肝、肾、胰腺、小肠、血管、肌肉、软骨、代谢系统、围产期疾病和炎症等。在上述这些器官、组织和疾病状态中，氢气对器官缺血再灌注损伤和炎症相关疾病的治疗效果最显著，有4篇文章涉及到恶性肿瘤。 [1]二、氢气治疗疾病的病理生理学机制目前关于氢气治疗疾病病理生理学机制主流观点仍是氢气的选择性抗氧化，在选择性抗氧化基础上，人们相继证明氢气对各类疾病过程中的氧化损伤，炎症反应、细胞凋亡和血管异常增生等具有治疗作用。活性氧在各类心脑血管疾病如中风和心肌梗死、代谢性疾病如糖尿病动脉硬化等人类重要急性和慢性疾病的病理生理进程中扮演了重要角色，它是分子氧在还原过程中的中间产物，包括以氧自由基形式存在和非氧自由基形式存在的两大类物质，其中氧自由基又包括羟自由基、超氧阴离子、一氧化氮、亚硝酸阴离子等物质。生理情况下，活性氧在体内不断产生，也不断被清除，处于动态平衡。但在缺血、炎症等病理状态下，机体将产生大量的活性氧。其中，羟自由基和过氧亚硝基阴离子毒性较强，是细胞氧化损伤的主要介质。而一氧化氮、超氧阴离子和过氧化氢等物质毒性较弱，具有重要的信号转导作用。既往在抗氧化损伤的治疗中，还原性过强的药物可能导致机体氧化-还原状态出现新的失衡。2007年Ohsawa等人研究证实，氢气能够选择性清除毒性较强的羟自由基和亚硝酸阴离子，而对其它具有重要生物学功能、毒性较低的活性氧影响不大，此即氢气的选择性抗氧化作用。该作用为抗氧化治疗提供了新的思路。早在2001年，Gharib等人报道吸入8个大气压的氢气对肝脏血吸虫感染引起的炎症反应具有治疗作用，他们认为氢气与羟自由基直接反应是氢气抗炎作用的基础。2009年Kajiya等人报道氢气能明显抑制葡聚糖硫酸钠诱发的结肠炎症反应，减少受损结肠的炎症因子水平，减轻炎症的病理损伤，改善预后。氢气的抗炎作用与其抑制活性氧产生、中和羟自由基、抑制促炎因子释放有关。另外，巨噬细胞在炎症反应和免疫调节中起重要作用，氢气对巨噬细胞的调节为其抗炎作用奠定了基础。孙学军等2008年的研究发现，氢气能减少大鼠缺血缺氧模型的组织损伤，呼吸低浓度的氢气可时间依赖性地减少凋亡酶Caspase-3和Caspase-12的活性，减少凋亡阳性细胞数量，研究提示氢气的作用与减少Caspase依赖性凋亡有关。Kubota等报道使用含氢气的水滴眼具有抗角膜血管增生的作用。 [1]三、氢气对中枢神经系统疾病的治疗作用氢气生物学效应发现以来，氢气对以脑血管疾病为代表和以老年性痴呆为代表的中枢神经系统疾功能紊乱都具有明显的保护作用。氢气对脑血管病的治疗作用Ohsawa等2007年报道的呼吸氢气对大鼠左大脑中动脉阻断模型的治疗作用后。孙学军等很快证明呼吸氢气对新生儿窒息引起的缺血缺氧性脑损伤具有理想的治疗作用，发现氢气对缺血缺氧性脑损伤后神经细胞凋亡酶活性有抑制作用，凋亡酶活性下降导致神经细胞凋亡减少，使神经细胞坏死减少。从而减轻了脑损伤，保护了成年后的脑功能。氢气对心脏停跳引起的脑损伤具有保护作用，这进一步肯定了氢气对缺血缺氧性脑损伤的保护作用。衣达拉奉是目前唯一被批准用于中风治疗的抗氧化药物，和单纯使用衣达拉奉相比，氢气联合使用衣达拉奉上述核磁共振检测指标均获得更好的改善。美国LomaLinda神经外科研究所和南京医科大学、浙江大学附属医院神经外科等三家实验室先后报道氢气呼吸和注射氢气生理盐水对脑出血和珠网膜下腔出血引起的早期脑损伤、神经细胞坏死、脑水肿和血管痉挛等具有理想的保护作用。氢气对神经退行性疾病的治疗作用巴金森病是脑干神经核黑质内多巴胺神经元死亡引起的疾病，经常是许多其他神经退行性疾病如老年性痴呆的继发表现。孙学军等在模型制备前1周开始给动物随意饮用氢气饱和水，结果发现该治疗可完全消除单侧巴金森病症状的发生。非治疗组动物注射侧多巴胺神经元数量比对照侧减少到40.2%，而治疗组仅减少到83%。即使在模型制备后3天开始给氢气水治疗，单侧巴金森病症状仍可以被抑制，但治疗效果低于预先治疗,神经元数量比对照侧减少到76.3%。预先治疗组动物在模型制备后48小时，纹状体内代表多巴胺神经元末梢的酪氨酸羟化酶活性在模型对照组和治疗组均显著下降。Fujita等用MPTP诱导的小鼠巴金森病模型证明氢气具有类似效应。研究结果表明，和其他如银杏叶比较，氢气具有更理想的治疗效果。 [1]四、氢气对肝脏病的治疗作用氢气在肝脏领域的应用研究十分突出，是早在2001年，法国潜水医学领域就有学者希望证明氢气的抗氧化作用，在马赛法国著名饱和潜水设备公司COMEXSA的设备、技术和人员帮助下，他们开展了这一研究。让感染了肝日本曼氏血吸虫病的小鼠连续14天呼吸氢氧混合气（氢气浓度为87.5%,分压为0.7Mpa）,观察对小鼠肝脏功能、肝组织氧化损伤、纤维化和血液炎症反应等方面的影响，研究结果证明，连续呼吸高压氢气对肝脏血吸虫病动物的肝组织损伤、炎症反应和后期的肝纤维化均有非常显著的保护作用。Fukuda等在2007年制作了大鼠肝脏缺血再灌注的模型，通过对组织标本的HE染色加MDA加肝功能酶学检测，发现氢气疗法对肝脏的缺血损伤有非常明显的治疗效果。2009年时，哈佛大学口腔医院的学者Kajiya等在实验中让大老鼠喝下能产生氢气的细菌，发现对伴刀豆球蛋白诱导的肝炎具有预防作用，如果用抗生素杀灭这些细菌，则抗肝炎的作用消失，这显示了氢气对肝炎的预防与治疗作用。他们还证明，饮用氢气饱和水对伴刀豆球蛋白诱导的肝炎具有类似的治疗效果。同年，Tsai等发现饮用富氢电解水可以保护小鼠四氯化碳诱导的肝脏损伤。中国学者孙汉勇等采用GalN/LPS，CCl4和DEN3种肝损伤动物模型，通过检测氢气、活性氧水平，评价氧化损伤、细胞凋亡和炎性反应程度，发现腹腔注射氢气生理盐水对急性肝脏损伤、肝纤维化和肝脏细胞增生均具有显著的抑制作用，同时细胞碉亡相关分子如JNK和caspase-3活性下降，研究结果证明氢气不仅能治疗急性肝脏损伤，而且能治疗肝硬化。刘渠等研究认为，腹腔注射氢气生理盐水通过提高肝脏抗氧化能力，抑制肝脏炎性反应能治疗胆管阻塞后黄疸和肝损伤，这对临床上的指导意义很大。对非酒精性脂肪肝的研究证明，长时间饮用氢气水可以对抗高脂饮食引起的脂肪肝，不仅对肝脏功能、肝形态学如纤维化，而且对脂肪肝相关细胞内信号通路均有明显的阻断效应，该效果可以和传统的治疗脂肪肝的药物吡格列酮（促进胰岛素受体敏感性，降血脂）治疗效果相嫣美。长期饮用氢气水不仅可以对抗脂肪肝，而且可以显著减少这种脂肪肝晚期转化成肝癌的比例，也就是说可以减少脂肪肝发生肝癌的可能性。氢气可以通过促进一种重要的信号分子FGF21发挥减肥和治疗脂肪肝的效果。氢气在肝脏疾病的临床研究十分缺乏，最近韩国学者Kang等对49例接受放射治疗的恶性肝癌病人，采用随机安慰剂对照方法，给病人在放射治疗期间饮用一定量的金属镁制备的氢气水，通过对生活质量进行评价，发现该氢气水可显著提高肝癌病人放射治疗后的生活量，同时可以降低血液中氧化应激指标。氢气作为一种选择性抗氧化物质，氢对肝脏缺血、药物性肝炎、胆管阻塞引起的肝硬化、脂肪肝等多种类型的肝脏疾病具有有效和明显的治疗作用。 [1]五、氢气的临床研究进展到目前为止，先后有7个疾病临床研究报道，分别是二型糖尿病、代谢综合症、血液透析、炎症/线粒体肌肉病、脑干缺血和放射治疗副作用和系统性红斑狼疮。从世界卫生组织注册的信息中可以发现，也有一些没有发表论文的临床研究。这些研究报告显示氢气在人体脂代谢和糖代谢中的关键的调节作用。 [1]天然气用气电共生改良后需要15.9百万立方米的瓦斯，如果每天生产500公斤由改装的加油站就地生产（例如高科技加气站），相当于改装777,000座加油站成本$1兆美金；可产每年1亿5000万吨氢气。先假设不需额外氢气分配系统的投资成本下，等于每GGE单位$3.00美元核能。用以提供电解水的氢气电能来源。需要240,000吨铀矿—提供2,000座600兆瓦发电厂等于$8400亿美金，等于每GGE单位$2.50美元。太阳能用以提供电解水的氢气电能来源。需要每平方公尺达2,500千瓦（每小时）效率的太阳能版科技共1亿1300万座40千瓦的机组，成本推估约$22兆等于每GGE单位$9.50美元。氢能化学元素氢（H），在元素周期表中位于第一位，它是所有原子中最小的。众所周知，氢气分子与氧气分子化合成水，氢通常的单质形态是氢气（H2），它是无色无味、极易燃烧的双原子的气体。氢气是密度最小的气体。在标准状况（0℃和一个大气压）下，每升氢气只有0.0899克重——仅相当于同体积空气质量的二十九分之二。氢是宇宙中最常见的元素，氢及其同位素占到了太阳总质量的84%，宇宙质量的75%都是氢。氢具有高挥发性、高能量，是能源载体和燃料，同时氢在工业生产中也有广泛应用。现在工业每年用氢量为5500亿立方米，氢气与其它物质一起用来制造氨水和化肥，同时也应用到汽油精炼工艺、玻璃磨光、黄金焊接、气象气球探测及食品工业中。液态氢可以作为火箭燃料，因为氢的液化温度在-253℃。氢能在二十一世纪有可能在世界能源舞台上成为一种举足轻重的二次能源。它是一种极为优越的新能源，其主要优点有：燃烧热值高，每千克氢燃烧后的热量，约为汽油的3倍，酒精的3.9倍，焦炭的4.5倍。燃烧的产物是水，是世界上最干净的能源。资源丰富，氢气可以由水制取，而水是地球上最为丰富的资源，演绎了自然物质循环利用、持续发展的经典过程。氢能简介二次能源是联系一次能源和能源用户的中间纽带。二次能源又可分为“过程性能源”和“含能体能源”。当今电能就是应用最广的“过程性能源”；柴油、汽油则是应用最广的“含能体能源”。由于目前“过程性能源”尚不能大量地直接贮存，因此汽车、轮船、飞机等机动性强的现代交通运输工具就无法直接使用从发电厂输出来的电能，只能采用像柴油、汽油这一类“含能体能源”。可见，过程性能源和含能体能源是不能互相替代的，各有自己的应用范围。随着，人们将目光也投向寻求新的“含能体能源”，作为二次能源的电能，可从各种一次能源中生产出来，例如煤炭、石油、天然气、太阳能、风能、水力、潮汐能、地热能、核燃料等均可直接生产电能。而作为二次能源的汽油和柴油等则不然，生产它们几乎完全依靠化石燃料。随着化石燃料耗量的日益增加，其储量日益减少，终有一天这些资源将要枯竭，这就迫切需要寻找一种不依赖化石燃料的、储量丰富的新的含能体能源。氢能正是一种在常规能源危机的出现、在开发新的二次能源的同时人们期待的新的二次能源。风力用以提供电解水的氢气电能来源。每秒7公尺的平均风速计算，需要1百万座2百万瓦风力机组成本约$3兆美金等于每GGE单位$3.00美元。生物燃油气化厂用气电共生改良后.。需要15亿吨干燥生物材料，3,300座厂房需要113.4百万英亩（460,000平方千米）农场提供生物材料，约$5650亿美元等于每GGE单位$1.90美元。煤矿火力发电用气电共生改良后提供电解水的氢气电能来源。需要10亿吨煤将近1,000座275兆瓦发电厂成本$5000亿美金，等于每GGE单位1美元。以上看出由煤矿的制氢最便宜，但是除非二氧化碳封存技术普及化及实用化，否则产生的高污染会使氢气科技的环保性荡然无存。 [1]科学研究播报编辑2022年10月，中国科学院国家天文台利用中国天眼FAST进行成像观测，在致密星系群——“斯蒂芬五重星系”及周围天区，发现了1个尺度大约为两百万光年的巨大原子气体系统，也就是大量弥散的氢原子气体。 [5]世界纪录播报编辑世界上宇宙中含量最多的元素：氢是宇宙（超过90%）和太阳系（70.68%）中最常见的元素。（吉尼斯世界纪录）新手上路成长任务编辑入门编辑规则本人编辑我有疑问内容质疑在线客服官方贴吧意见反馈投诉建议举报不良信息未通过词条申诉投诉侵权信息封禁查询与解封©2024 Baidu 使用百度前必读 | 百科协议 | 隐私政策 | 百度百科合作平台 | 京ICP证030173号京公网安备110000020000

HYDROGEN中文(简体)翻译：剑桥词典

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hydrogen 在英语-中文（简体）词典中的翻译

hydrogennoun [ U ] uk

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/ˈhaɪ.drə.dʒən/ us

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/ˈhaɪ.drə.dʒən/ (symbol H)

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a chemical element that is the lightest gas, has no colour, taste, or smell, and combines with oxygen to form water

氢，氢气

(hydrogen在剑桥英语-中文（简体）词典的翻译 © Cambridge University Press)

hydrogen的例句

hydrogen

When hydrophobic molecules are solvated in bulk water, possibilities for resolving some of the frustrations in the hydrogen networks appear.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

In general, a number of independent experimental observations confirm that the rt-plasma is due to a novel reaction of atomic hydrogen.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

Estimation of hydrogen cyanide released from cassava by organic solvents.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

Origin of apparent fast and non-exponential kinetics of lysozyme folding measured in pulsed hydrogen exchange measurements.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

There are at least two reasons for filling the waveguide with hydrogen.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

Energetic components of the allosteric machinery in hemoglobin measured by hydrogen exchange.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

A ramp-filling procedure applied to filling polymer and glass shell with highly pressurized hydrogens.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

However, strong deterioration of discharge stability is evident in hydrogen-based mixtures.

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/ˈvedʒ.i ˌbɝː.ɡɚ/

a type of food similar to a hamburger but made without meat, by pressing together small pieces of vegetables, seeds, etc. into a flat, round shape

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氢气_百度百科

度百科网页新闻贴吧知道网盘图片视频地图文库资讯采购百科百度首页登录注册进入词条全站搜索帮助首页秒懂百科特色百科知识专题加入百科百科团队权威合作下载百科APP个人中心氢气[qīng qì]播报讨论上传视频氢元素形成的一种单质收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10氢气（Hydrogen）是氢元素形成的一种单质，化学式H2，分子量为2.01588。常温常压下氢气是一种无色无味极易燃烧且难溶于水的气体。氢气的密度为0.089g/L（101.325kpa,0°C），只有空气的1/14，是世界上已知的密度最小的气体。 [6]所以氢气可作为飞艇、氢气球的填充气体（由于氢气具有可燃性，安全性不高，飞艇现多用氦气填充）。氢气与电负性大的非金属反应显示还原性，与活泼金属反应显示氧化性。 [5]氢气(H2)最早于16世纪初被人工制备，当时使用的方法是将金属置于强酸中。1766–1781年，亨利·卡文迪许（Henry Cavendish，1731-1810）发现氢元素，氢气燃烧生成水，拉瓦锡（Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier，1743-1794）根据这一性质将该元素命名为“hydrogenium”（“生成水的物质”之意，“hydro”是“水”，“gen”是“生成”，”ium"是元素通用后缀）。19世纪50年代英国医生合信（B.Hobson）编写《博物新编》（1855年）时，把“hydrogen”翻译为“轻气”，意为最轻气体。工业上一般从天然气或水煤气制氢气，而不采用高耗能的电解水的方法。制得的氢气大量用于石化行业的裂化反应和生产氨气。氢气分子可以进入许多金属的晶格中，造成“氢脆”现象，使得氢气的存储罐和管道需要使用特殊材料（如蒙乃尔合金），设计也更加复杂。 [1]2018年2月，中国实现氢气的低温制备和存储，获得科技部2017年度中国科学十大进展。 [2]氢气被列入《危险化学品名录》 [7]，并按照《危险化学品安全管理条例》管控 [8]。中文名氢气外文名hydrogen化学式H2分子量2.01588 [6]CAS登录号1333-74-0EINECS登录号215-605-7熔点-259.2 ℃（101 kPa）沸点-252.87 ℃（101 kPa）水溶性难溶于水密度0.0899 kg/m³ [4]（101.325 kpa, 0°C）外观无色透明 [9]应用工业燃料、金属冶炼、有机合成等安全性描述S9；S16；S33危险性符号F+危险性描述R12UN危险货物编号1950目录1研究简史2物质结构3物理性质4化学性质▪综述▪还原性▪氧化性5应用领域▪工业用途▪医疗用途6安全措施▪环境危害▪健康危害▪危害防治7储存运输▪储存方法▪运输方法8检测方法▪仪器▪测定条件▪测定步骤▪纯氢测定研究简史播报编辑在化学史上，人们把氢元素的发现与“发现和证明了水是氢和氧的化合物而非元素”这两项重大成就，主要归功于英国化学家和物理学家亨利·卡文迪许。在18世纪末以前，曾经有不少人做过制取氢气的实验，所以实际上很难说是谁发现了氢，即使公认对氢的发现和研究有过很大贡献的卡文迪许本人也认为氢的发现不只是他的功劳。早在16世纪，瑞士著名医生帕拉塞斯就描述过铁屑与酸接触时有一种气体产生；17世纪时，比利时著名的医疗化学派学者扬·巴普蒂斯塔·范·海尔蒙特（Jan Baptista van Helmont，1580-1644）曾偶然接触过这种气体，但没有把它离析、收集起来；波义耳（Robert Boyle，1627-1691）虽偶然收集过这种气体，但并未进行研究。他们只知道它可燃，此外就很少了解；1700年，法国药剂师勒梅里（Lemery, N. 1645-1715）在巴黎科学院的《报告》上也提到过它。但是，最早把氢气收集起来，并对它的性质仔细加以研究的是卡文迪许。1766年卡文迪许向英国皇家学会提交了一篇研究报告《人造空气实验》，讲了他用铁、锌等与稀硫酸、稀盐酸作用制得“易燃空气”（即氢气），并用普利斯特里（J.Joseph Priestley，1733-1804）发明的排水集气法把它收集起来，进行研究。他发现一定量的某种金属分别与足量的各种酸作用，所产生的这种气体的量是固定的，与酸的种类、浓度都无关。他还发现氢气与空气混合后点燃会发生爆炸；又发现氢气与氧气化合生成水，从而认识到这种气体和其它已知的各种气体都不同。但是，由于他是燃素说的虔诚信徒，按照他的理解：这种气体燃烧起来这么猛烈，一定富含燃素； [6]硫磺燃烧后成为硫酸，那么硫酸中是没有燃素的；而按照燃素说金属也是含燃素的。所以他认为这种气体是从金属中分解出来的，而不是来自酸中。他设想金属在酸中溶解时，“它们所含的燃素便释放出来，形成了这种可燃空气”。他甚至曾一度设想氢气就是燃素，这种推测很快就得以当时的一些杰出化学家舍勒·基尔万（Kirwan, R. 1735-1812）等的赞同。由于把氢气充到气球中，气球便会徐徐上升，这种现象当时曾被一些燃素学说的信奉者们用来作为他们“论证”燃素具有负重量的根据。但卡文迪许究竟是一位非凡的科学家，后来他弄清楚了气球在空气中所受浮力问题，通过精确研究，证明氢气是有重量的，只是比空气轻很多。他是这样做实验的：先把金属和装有酸的烧瓶称重，然后将金属投入酸中，用排水集气法收集氢气并测体积，再称量反应后烧瓶及内装物的总量。这样他确定了氢气的比重只是空气的9%.但这些化学家仍不肯轻易放弃旧说，鉴于氢气燃烧后会产生水，于是他们改说氢气是燃素和水的化合物。水的合成否定了水是元素的错误观念，在古希腊：恩培多克勒提出，宇宙间只存在火、气、水、土四种元素，它们组成万物。从那时起直到18世纪70年代，人们一直认为水是一种元素。1781年，普利斯特里将氢气和空气放在闭口玻璃瓶中，用电火花引爆，发现瓶的内壁有露珠出现。同年卡文迪许也用不同比例的氢气与空气的混合物反复进行这项实验，确认这种露滴是纯净的水，表明氢是水的一种成分。这时氧气也已发现，卡文迪许又用纯氧代替空气进行试验，不仅证明氢和氧化合成水，而且确认大约2份体积的氢与1份体积的氧恰好化合成水（发表于1784年）。这些实验结果本已毫无异议地证明了水是氢和氧的化合物，而不是一种元素，但卡文迪许却和普利斯特里一样，仍坚持认为水是一种元素，氧是失去燃素的水，氢则是含有过多燃素的水。他用下式表示“易燃空气”（氢）的燃烧：（水+燃素）+（水－燃素）→水1782年，拉瓦锡重复了他们的实验，并用红热的枪筒分解了水蒸气，明确提出正确的结论：水不是元素而是氢和氧的化合物，纠正了两千多年来把水当做元素的错误概念。1787年，他把过去称作“易燃空气”的这种气体命名为“Hydrogen”（氢），意思是“产生水的”，并确认它是一种元素。 [6]物质结构播报编辑氢原子结构氢气是一种双原子气体分子，由两个氢原子通过共用一对电子构成。氢气是自然界中最小的分子。氢原子具有独特的电子构型1s1，所以它既可能获得一个电子成为H-（具有氦构型1s2），也可能失去一个电子变成质子H+。因此它表面上不但很像卤素能获得一个电子成为一种惰性气结构ns2np6，而且很像碱金属能失去一个电子成为M+(ns2np6)。然而，由于氢在其结构中没有别的电子，故它与这两族中的每一族都有足够的差别，这说明将氢放在这两族之外是正确的。 [9]物理性质播报编辑氢气是无色并且密度比空气小的气体（在各种气体中，氢气的密度最小。标准状况下，1升氢气的质量是0.089克，相同体积比空气轻得多）。因为氢气难溶于水，所以可以用排水集气法收集氢气。另外，在一个标准大气压下，温度-252.87℃时，氢气可转变成无色的液体；-259.1℃时，变成雪状固体。氢气的一些物理性质沸点-252.8 ℃（101 kPa） [6]熔点-259.2 ℃（101 kPa）密度0.089 g/L(101.325 kpa, 0°C) [6]气液容积比974 L/L（15℃，101 kPa）相对分子质量2.01588 [6]临界密度66.8 kg/m3三相点-254.4 ℃临界压力1.313 MPa熔化热48.84 kJ/kg（-254.5℃，平衡态）表面张力3.72 mN/m（平衡态，-252.8℃）热值1.4×108 J/kg（2.82×105 J/mol）折射系数1.0001265（1 atm，25℃）比热比Cp/Cv=1.40（1 atm，25℃，气体）易燃性级别4比热容 (cp)14.30 kJ/(kg·K), (1 atm，25℃)比热容 (cv)10.21 kJ/(kg·K), (1 atm，25℃)汽化热305 kJ/kg（△H ，-249.5℃）临界温度-239.97℃ [3]比容11.12 m3/kg（1 atm，21.2℃）蒸汽压力53.33 kPa（正常态，21.621 K）119.99 kPa（正常态，24.249 K）粘度0.010 mPa·S（1 atm，0 ℃）导热系数0.1289 W/(m·K)（1 atm，0 ℃）金属态氢金属氢，是液态或固态氢在上百万大气压的高压下变成的导电体。导电性类似于金属，故称金属氢。金属氢是一种高密度、高储能材料。 [15]2017年1月26日，《科学》杂志报道哈佛大学实验室成功制造出金属氢。 [18]化学性质播报编辑综述常温下，氢气的性质很稳定，不容易跟其它物质发生化学反应。但当条件改变时（如点燃、加热、使用催化剂等），情况就不同了。如氢气被钯或铂等金属吸附后具有较强的活性（特别是被钯吸附）。金属钯对氢气的吸附作用最强。氢气与电负性大的元素反应显示还原性，与活泼金属单质常显示氧化性。氢气在催化剂的存在下能与大部分有机物进行加成反应。 [6]还原性可燃性氢气是一种极易燃的气体，燃点只有574℃，在空气中的体积分数为4%至75%时都能燃烧。氢气燃烧的焓变为−286kJ/mol：2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)，ΔH = -572 kJ/mol当空气中氢气浓度在4.1%至74.8%时，遇明火即可引起爆炸。氢气的着火点为500°C。纯净的氢气与氧气的混合物燃烧时放出紫外线。在带尖嘴的导管口点燃纯净的氢气，纯净的氢气在空气里安静地燃烧，产生淡蓝色的火焰（氢气在玻璃导管口燃烧时，火焰常略带黄色）。用烧杯罩在火焰的上方时，烧杯壁上有水珠生成，接触烧杯的手能感到发烫。氢气在空气里燃烧，实际上是氢气跟空气里的氧气发生了化合反应，生成了水并放出大量的热。反过来，氢气可以用电解水的方式制备。这个反应的化学方程式是：催化下与氧气反应氢气在氧气过量和低温有催化剂的条件下可直接生成过氧化氢，副产物为水。（过氧化物中氧元素的化合价为-1） [25]与卤素反应氢气可将卤素还原为负价的离子。如，氢气在光照条件下可和氯气反应，生成氯化氢气体：在此反应中，氢气作为还原剂，将氯还原为负一价。氢气与氟气混合，即使在阴暗的条件下，也会立刻爆炸，生成氟化氢气体： [5]与金属氧化物反应氢气具有还原性，能将金属氧化物还原为金属单质。如，氢气能迅速地还原氯化钯的水溶液：该反应可用作氢的灵敏检验反应。 [9]在加热条件下氢气能与将氧化铜还原为橙色的金属铜并产生水。与二氧化碳反应二氧化碳与氢在催化剂作用下能生成甲醇：二氧化碳氢气在高温高压下常生成甲烷和水：与氮气反应氮气与在催化剂存在下与氢气高温高压生成氨气，工业常常采用这种方法制备氨气。 [5]与烯烃反应在反应过程中要打开烯烃的一个π键及一个H-H键，生成两个C-H键。反应是放热的，但即使是一个放热反应，在无催化剂时，反应也很难进行，这说明反应的活化能很高。在催化作用下烯烃与氢可顺利加成。如丙烯与氢气在催化剂的存在下生成丙烷：显然，催化剂的作用是降低了反应的活化能，简单地说，催化剂将氢与烯烃都吸附在其表面，从而促进反应的进行。与炔烃反应一般炔烃在用铂、钯等催化氢化时，通常得到烷烃。如乙炔在铂的存在下与氢气反应乙烷：但在特殊催化剂如Lindlar催化剂（用醋酸铅或喹啉处理过的金属钯）作用下，炔烃与氢气反应可以制得烯烃。如乙炔与氢气在催化下生成乙烯：与苯反应苯在镍的存在下与氢气加热，能与氢发生加成反应，生成环己烷。苯与氢气反应还原羰基化合物羰基化合物能被氢气还原。如，醛或酮经催化氢化可分别还原为伯醇或仲醇。油脂的氢化含不饱和脂肪酸的油脂，在催化剂作用下可以加氢，加氢的结果是液态的油转化为半固态的脂肪，因此油脂的氢化也叫“油脂的硬化”。 [17]油酸甘油酯的氢化反应Rosenmund还原反应Rosenmund还原反应就是酰氯在部分失活的钯催化剂（Pd/BaSO4）作用下与氢气进行还原得到醛。如，乙酰氯与氢气在催化下生成乙醛与氯化氢。 [24]与硫缩酮反应氢气在雷尼镍的催化下能将硫缩酮脱硫生成烃类。 [21]氢气在雷尼镍存在下与硫缩酮反应还原酰胺氢气在催化剂存在下能将酰胺还原成胺，如乙酰胺在催化下与氢气反应生成乙胺： [22]还原硝基硝基可以被氢气还原为氨基，如硝基苯在钯碳催化剂下能被氢气还原为氨基苯： [23]氧化性与活泼金属反应氢气对活泼的金属常显示氧化性，因为氢气是由氢原子共价形成的双原子分子，而每个氢原子可以分别获得一个电子形成负氢离子。如氢气与金属锂在加热条件下生成氢化锂：在此反应中氢气作为氧化剂，氢气从锂原子中获得一个电子而被还原为负离子。 [5]应用领域播报编辑工业用途1、氢气是一种良好的化工原料，耗用氢气量最大的是合成氨，世界上约百分之六十的氢气用于合成氨，中国的比例更高。其次是经合成气（H2/CO2）制甲醇。氢与氯可合成氯化氢而制得盐酸。 [13]除能制氨和合成盐酸外，氢气还能还原有机物的硝基为氨基，如硝基苯氢化还原可制苯胺。用酮或醛和氢气还原烷化能制各种有机产品，例N-烷基-N苯基对苯二胺、防老剂4010，防老剂4020等。2、由于氢气具有良好的还原性，且无污染，因此氢可代替碳作还原剂用于金属冶炼；此外，氢气还可用于光导纤维生产，金属的切割焊接，氢燃料电池汽车，分布式发电等。3、在一般情况下，氢极易与氧结合。这种特性使其成为天然的还原剂使用于防止出现氧化的生产中。在玻璃制造的高温加工过程及电子微芯片的制造中，在氮气保护气中加入氢以去除残余的氧。在石化工业中，需加氢通过去硫和氢化裂解来提炼原油。氢的另一个重要的用途是对人造黄油、食用油、洗发精、润滑剂、家庭清洁剂及其它产品中的脂肪氢化。4、氢气还可用作工业燃料，氢气作燃料用的优点之一就是分子量最低，而氢和氧的燃烧热值高，可达28670千卡／千克，比液氧和煤油的热值（10000千卡／千克左右）高得多，液氢是优良的火箭发动燃料，也可用于航天飞机的推进剂。据报导，中国从六十年代以来，已能生产液氢用于国防工业，先后建造了150、200、1500L／h的液氢生产设备，日总生产能力达数吨。除此以外，还拥有容积为60m³、70m³的液氢槽车和多种规格的液氢公路槽车，以及贮运中的相关技术装备。中国1984年4月8日发射的第一颗试验通信卫星，使用的就是液氢和液氧推进剂。 [12]氢能源在工业中的优缺点氢气无毒，不像有些燃料，如甲醇、一氧化碳毒性很大。并且氢气在开放的大气中，很容易快速逃逸，而不像汽油蒸汽挥发后滞留在空气中不易疏散（这使得事故发生时它的影响范围要小得多）。氢气燃烧不冒烟，只生成水，不会污染环境。但氢能源的利用也有其不利因素。氢是易燃气体、着火点能量很小，在空气中氢的最小着火能量仅为0.019mJ，在氧气中的最小着火能量更小，仅为0.007mJ。氢的另一个危险性是它和空气混合后的燃烧浓度极限的范围很宽，按体积比计算其范围为4％一75％，因此不能因为氢的扩散能力很大而对氢的爆炸危险放松警惕。 [19]医疗用途已有研究发现，氢气对于抗氧化、抗衰老、增强免疫力、对于人体自身修复、改善过敏体质、促进新陈代谢都有良好的功效。 [14]但是，将氢分子融入饮用水中，其有效性和安全性并没有数据支持。而且人体本身就可以由肠内细菌产生氢分子，其产生量随食物纤维等的摄取量而变高。 [16]因此，饮用富氢水是否能真正起作用还没有定论。安全措施播报编辑环境危害氢气极易燃，和氟气、氯气、氧气、一氧化碳以及空气混合均有爆炸的危险，其中，氢气与氟气的混合物在低温和黑暗环境就能发生自发性爆炸，与氯气的混合体积比为1:1时，在光照下也可爆炸。氢气由于无色无味，燃烧时火焰是透明的，因此其存在不易被感官发现，在许多情况下向氢气中加入有臭味的乙硫醇，以便使嗅觉察觉，并可同时赋予火焰以颜色。气体比空气轻，在室内使用和储存时，漏气上升滞留屋顶不易排出，遇火源即会引起爆炸。 [10]健康危害不同接触对人体危害 [11]接触类型危害预防急救吸入氢气无毒，但吸入过量氢气会导致头晕、头痛、昏睡、窒息保持室内通风呼吸新鲜空气，休息皮肤接触接触液化氢气会导致皮肤冻伤戴手套，穿防护服冻伤时用大量水冲洗，不要脱去衣服，立即给予医疗护理眼睛接触接触液化氢气会导致眼睛冻伤，视线模糊戴防护眼罩或佩戴面具冻伤时，用大量水冲洗。立即给予医疗护理。危害防治密闭操作，加强通风。操作人员必须经过专门培训，严格遵守操作规程。建议操作人员穿防静电工作服。远离火种、热源，工作场所严禁吸烟。使用防爆型的通风系统和设备。防止气体泄漏到工作场所空气中。避免与氧化剂、卤素接触。在传送过程中，钢瓶和容器必须接地和跨接，防止产生静电。搬运时轻装轻卸，防止钢瓶及附件破损。配备相应品种和数量的消防器材及泄漏应急处理设备。应急处理：迅速撤离泄漏污染区人员至上风处，并进行隔离，严格限制出入。切断火源。建议应急处理人员戴自给正压式呼吸器，穿防静电工作服。尽可能切断泄漏源。合理通风，加速扩散。如有可能，将漏出气用排风机送至空旷地方或装设适当喷头烧掉。漏气容器要妥善处理，修复、检验后再用。灭火方法：切断气源。若不能切断气源，则不允许熄灭泄漏处的火焰。喷水冷却容器，可能的话将容器从火场移至空旷处。灭火剂：雾状水、泡沫、二氧化碳、干粉。 [10]储存运输播报编辑储存方法气氢储存氢气因为是易燃压缩气体，故应储存于阴凉、通风的仓间内。仓内温度不宜超过30℃。远离火种、热源。防止阳光直射。应与氧气、压缩空气、卤素（氟气、氯气、溴）、氧化剂等分开存放。储存间内的照明、通风等设施应采用防爆型，开关设在仓外，配备相应品种和数量的消防器材。禁止使用易产生火花的机械设备工具。验收时要注意品名，注意验瓶日期，先进仓的先发用。搬运时轻装轻卸，防止钢瓶及附件破损。 [10]气态高压储氢是最普通和最直接的储存方式。目前中国使用水容积为40升的钢瓶在15MPa高压储存氢气。这样的钢瓶只能储存6m³标准氢气，还不到高压钢瓶重量的1％。很明显它的缺点是储氢量小，运输成本过高。液氢储存通过氢气绝热膨胀而生成的液氢也可以作为氢的储存方式。液氢沸点仅20.38K，气化潜热小，仅0.91kJ·mol/L，因此液氢的温度与外界的温度存在巨大的温差，稍有热量从外界渗人容器，即可快速沸腾而导致损失。液氢的理论体积密度也只有70kg/m³，考虑到容器和附件的体积，液氢系统的储氢密度还不到40kg/m³。液氢方式储运的优点是质量储氢密度高，但同样存在成本问题和液氢蒸发损失的问题 [19]。运输方法气氢输送氢气的密度特别小，为了提高输送能力，一般将氢气加压，使体积大大缩小，然后装在高压容器中、用船舶或牵引忙车进行较长距离的输送。在技术上，这种运输方法已经相当成熟。液氢输送当液氢生产厂离用户距离较远对，可以把液氢装在专用低温绝热槽罐内。放在机车、卡车、船舶或者飞机上运输，这是一种既能满足较大输氢量，又是比较经济、快速的运氢疗式。固氢运输用金属储氢材料储存与输送氧比较简单，即用储氢合金储存氢气，然后运输装有储氢合金的容器。固氢输送有如下优点：体积储氢密度高；容器工作条件温和，不需要隔热容器和高压容器系统安全性好，避免爆炸危险。但最大的缺点是运输效率太低（小到1％）。 [19]检测方法播报编辑氢气的检验1.氢含量的测定氢气的体积百分含量(c)用差减法计算求得，按式(1)计算：(1)c1--氧气的体积含量，ppm；式中：c3--一氧化碳的体积含量，ppm；c2--氮气的体积含量；ppm；c5--甲烷的体积含量，ppm。c4--二氧化碳的体积含量，ppm；采用变温浓缩色谱技术，以热导检测器检测。首先使被测组分在液氮温度下的浓缩柱上定量吸附，然后升温定量脱附，再经色谱柱分离后检测。被测组分进入热导检测器引起桥路阻值的变化与氧、氮含量成比例，由此可定氧、氮含量。2.氧和氮含量的测定气相色谱仪与热解吸仪连接示意图气相色谱仪及配套的浓缩进样装置，要求仪器对氧、氮的最低检测浓度分别不高于4ppm、8ppm。色谱仪的安装和调试及浓缩操作按规定要求进行。 [20]仪器便携式氢气泄漏检测仪可连续检测作业环境中氢气浓度。氢气泄漏检测仪为自然扩散方式检测气体浓度，采用电化学传感器，具有较好的灵敏度和出色的重复性；氢气检测仪采用嵌入式微控制技术，菜单操作简单，功能齐全，可靠性高，整机性能优良。检测仪外壳采用高强度工程材料、复合弹性橡胶材料精制而成，强度高、手感好。2、泵吸式氢气检测仪泵吸式氢气检测仪采用内置吸气泵，可快速检测工作环境中氢气浓度。泵吸式氢气检测仪采用电化学传感器，具有非常清晰的大液晶显示屏，闪光报警提示，保证在非常不利的工作环境下也可以检测危险气体并及时提示操作人员预防。3、在线式氢气检测报警器在线式氢气检测报警器由气体检测报警控制器和固定式氢气检测器组成，气体检测报警控制器可放置于值班室内，对各监测点进行监测控制，氢气检测器安装于气体最易泄露的地点，其核心部件为气体传感器。氢气检测器将传感器检测到的氢气浓度转换成电信号，通过线缆传输到气体检测报警控制器，气体浓度越高，电信号越强，当气体浓度达到或超过报警控制器设置的报警点时，气体检测报警控制器发出报警信号，并可启动电磁阀、排气扇等外联设备，自动排除隐患。在线式氢气检测报警器广泛应用于石油、化工、冶金、电力、煤矿、水厂等环境，有效防止爆炸事故的发生。测定条件载气纯度不低于99.999%的高纯氢，应符合GB 7445-1987《氢气》要求桥路电流150～200mA浓缩时样品流速1.0～1.5ml/min载气流速40～60ml/min浓缩柱长750px，内径4mm，内装活化后的40～60目5分子筛，吸附温度为-196℃（液氮浴），脱附温度为室温（水浴）色谱柱长2500px，内径3mm，内装活化后的40～60目5分子筛，柱温为室温测定步骤1.色普仪启动 [20]2.测定按气相色谱仪使用说明书启动仪器。开启载气，充分置换色谱系统，纯化载气，调整流速至规定值，接通热导池电源，调整仪器各部位达测定条件，待仪器工作稳定。置换：将样品气钢瓶经采样阀及管道与仪器相连，然后3次升降压并用约20倍以上管道体积的样品气充分置换进入浓缩柱前的连接管和阀体，使所取样品具有代表性。空白：关闭浓缩柱，套上液氮浴5min后，取下液氨浴，在室温下浴下令载气通过浓缩柱，以记录仪上无色谱峰出现为正常：再令载气通过浓缩，在小心严防空气倒吸的情况下，浓缩载气5min，测定色谱系统空白值符合要求为正常。样品气的浓缩体积数积数由被测组分含量和仪器灵敏度决定。浓缩：令样品气以1.0～1.5L/min流速通过浓缩柱，置换2～3min后关闭浓缩柱出口，然后将浓缩柱缓慢套上液氮浴，待垫气结束后打开浓缩柱出口，样品气流经湿式流量计后放空。测量：记录各被测组分的色谱流出曲线，分别测量各组分峰面积A1。进样：浓缩完毕，关闭浓缩柱入口，取下液氨浴后在室温下浴下放掉解吸的氢，关闭浓缩柱出口，迅速转动六通阀。令载气通过浓缩柱将被测组分带入色谱柱，在湿式流量计上读到样品体积数。用指数稀释法配制的标准气定标。定标方法见GB4815-84《氦气检验方法》附录C。定标标准气是以99.999%的氢为底气，用空气经稀释配制而成的，定标时各组分的已知浓度应与样品气浓缩后各相尖组分浓度相近。将标准气直接进样测定出标准气中氧和氮的色谱峰面积A2。纯氢中氮的测定，无需进行浓缩操作，其他步骤同上。采用1～5mL定体积量管接进样即可计算方法式（2）中的V1和V2分别代表样品气和标准气的进样体积，氧的测定按GB 6285-86《气体中微量氧的测定电化学法》进行 [20]。纯氢测定以两次平行测定的算术平均值为测定结果，平行测定的相对偏差：超纯氢、高纯氢、纯氢分别不大于50%、20%、10%。结果处理氢中被测组分的含量按式（2）计算：(2)式中：c1--样品气中被测组分的含量，ppm；A1--样品气中被测组分的峰面积，mm2；c2--标准气中被测组分的含量，ppm；V1--样品气浓缩体积，mL；A2--标准气中被测组分的峰面积，mm2； [20]新手上路成长任务编辑入门编辑规则本人编辑我有疑问内容质疑在线客服官方贴吧意见反馈投诉建议举报不良信息未通过词条申诉投诉侵权信息封禁查询与解封©2024 Baidu 使用百度前必读 | 百科协议 | 隐私政策 | 百度百科合作平台 | 京ICP证030173号京公网安备110000020000

hydrogen是什么意思_hydrogen的翻译_音标_读音_用法_例句_爱词霸在线词典

ogen是什么意思_hydrogen的翻译_音标_读音_用法_例句_爱词霸在线词典首页翻译背单词写作校对词霸下载用户反馈专栏平台登录hydrogen是什么意思_hydrogen用英语怎么说_hydrogen的翻译_hydrogen翻译成_hydrogen的中文意思_hydrogen怎么读,hydrogen的读音,hydrogen的用法,hydrogen的例句翻译人工翻译试试人工翻译翻译全文简明柯林斯牛津hydrogen高中/CET4/CET6/考研/TOEFL/IELTS英 [ˈhaɪdrədʒən]美 [ˈhaɪdrədʒən]释义n.<化>氢点击人工翻译，了解更多人工释义词态变化复数: hydrogens;实用场景例句全部Hydrogen is used extensively in industry for the production of ammonia.氢气在工业上广泛用于制氨。柯林斯例句He mobilized public opinion all over the world against hydrogen-bomb tests.他动员全世界的舆论反对氢弹试验。柯林斯例句Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen combine chemically to form carbohydrates and fats.碳、氢、氧化合形成碳水化合物和脂肪。柯林斯例句In May engineers found a leak in a hydrogen fuel line.5月份工程师们在一条氢燃料管线上发现一条裂隙。柯林斯例句Hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water.氢与氧化合成水。《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》Qualitative analysis shows that water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen.定性分析表明水是由氢氧结合而成的.《简明英汉词典》Water is made up of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen.水由氢和氧的原子构成.《简明英汉词典》Water can be reduced to oxygen and hydrogen by electrolysis.用电解法可以把水分解为氧和氢.《简明英汉词典》Water is a compound containing the elements hydrogen and oxygen.水是含有氢元素和氧元素的化合物.《现代汉英综合大词典》Water can be resolved [ decomposed ] into hydrogen and oxygen.水可分解为氢和氧.《现代汉英综合大词典》Hydrogen combines chemically with oxygen to form water.氢和氧化合成为水.《简明英汉词典》Hydrogen and oxygen are the constituents of water.氢和氧是水的主要成分.《简明英汉词典》Water was dissolved into hydrogen and oxygen.水被分解为氢和氧.《简明英汉词典》Hydrogen is a corlourless, odourless gas.氢气是一种无色、无味的气体.《简明英汉词典》Hydrogen is a one - valence element.氢是一价的元素.《现代汉英综合大词典》收起实用场景例句真题例句全部六级Most hydrogen and oxygen atoms in water are stable, but traces of both elements are also present as heavier isotopes.2015年12月六级真题（第二套）听力 Section C收起真题例句英英释义Noun1. a nonmetallic univalent element that is normally a colorless and odorless highly flammable diatomic gas; the simplest and lightest and most abundant element in the universe收起英英释义行业词典医学氢：最轻的元素，无臭、无味、无色的气体，易燃，与空气混合即爆炸存在于水及一切有机化合物中在所有酸的水溶液中氢离子都是其活性成分化学符号H，原子序数为1，原子量1.00797，比重0.069，有三种同位素，即普通的氢或氕(音撇)、氘(音刀)和氚(音川)。氕为轻氢，即质量为1的同位素氘为重氢，即质量为2的同位素氚为质量为3的同位素天文学氢，分子式为“ H”，原子数为2 物理学储氢材料，hydrogen-storage material 类氢原子，hydrogen-like atom 电力氢氧燃料电池，hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell 氢油平衡阀，hydrogen-oil equalizing valve 蒸汽中氢分析器，hydrogen-in-steam analyzer 氢冷汽轮发电机，hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator 氢冷电枢绕组，hydrogen-armature winding 氢冷调相机，hydrogen-cooled compensator 释义词态变化实用场景例句真题例句英英释义行

Hydrogen - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table

Hydrogen

- Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table

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Glossary

Allotropes

Some elements exist in several different structural forms, called allotropes. Each allotrope has different physical properties.

For more information on the Visual Elements image see the Uses and properties section below.

Move to Helium >

Hydrogen

Discovery date

1766

Discovered by

Henry Cavendish

Origin of the name

The name is derived from the Greek 'hydro' and 'genes' meaning water forming.

Allotropes

Hydrogen

1.008

Glossary

Group

A vertical column in the periodic table. Members of a group typically have similar properties and electron configurations in their outer shell.

Period

A horizontal row in the periodic table. The atomic number of each element increases by one, reading from left to right.

Block

Elements are organised into blocks by the orbital type in which the outer electrons are found. These blocks are named for the characteristic spectra they produce: sharp (s), principal (p), diffuse (d), and fundamental (f).

Atomic number

The number of protons in an atom.

Electron configuration

The arrangements of electrons above the last (closed shell) noble gas.

Melting point

The temperature at which the solid–liquid phase change occurs.

Boiling point

The temperature at which the liquid–gas phase change occurs.

Sublimation

The transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas phase without passing through a liquid phase.

Density (g cm−3)

Density is the mass of a substance that would fill 1 cm3 at room temperature.

Relative atomic mass

The mass of an atom relative to that of carbon-12. This is approximately the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Where more than one isotope exists, the value given is the abundance weighted average.

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

CAS number

The Chemical Abstracts Service registry number is a unique identifier of a particular chemical, designed to prevent confusion arising from different languages and naming systems.

Fact box

Group

Melting point

−259.16°C, −434.49°F, 13.99 K

Period

Boiling point

−252.879°C, −423.182°F, 20.271 K

Block

Density (g cm−3)

0.000082

Atomic number

Relative atomic mass

1.008

State at 20°C

Gas

Key isotopes

1H, 2H

Electron configuration

1s1

CAS number

133-74-0

ChemSpider ID

4515072

ChemSpider is a free chemical structure database

Glossary

Image explanation

Murray Robertson is the artist behind the images which make up Visual Elements. This is where the artist explains his interpretation of the element and the science behind the picture.

Appearance

The description of the element in its natural form.

Biological role

The role of the element in humans, animals and plants.

Natural abundance

Where the element is most commonly found in nature, and how it is sourced commercially.

Uses and properties

Image explanation

The image is based on the iconic atomic model first proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913.

Appearance

A colourless, odourless gas. It has the lowest density of all gases.

Uses

Some see hydrogen gas as the clean fuel of the future – generated from water and returning to water when it is oxidised. Hydrogen-powered fuel cells are increasingly being seen as ‘pollution-free’ sources of energy and are now being used in some buses and cars.Hydrogen also has many other uses. In the chemical industry it is used to make ammonia for agricultural fertiliser (the Haber process) and cyclohexane and methanol, which are intermediates in the production of plastics and pharmaceuticals. It is also used to remove sulfur from fuels during the oil-refining process. Large quantities of hydrogen are used to hydrogenate oils to form fats, for example to make margarine. In the glass industry hydrogen is used as a protective atmosphere for making flat glass sheets. In the electronics industry it is used as a flushing gas during the manufacture of silicon chips. The low density of hydrogen made it a natural choice for one of its first practical uses – filling balloons and airships. However, it reacts vigorously with oxygen (to form water) and its future in filling airships ended when the Hindenburg airship caught fire.

Biological role

Hydrogen is an essential element for life. It is present in water and in almost all the molecules in living things. However, hydrogen itself does not play a particularly active role. It remains bonded to carbon and oxygen atoms, while the chemistry of life takes place at the more active sites involving, for example, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus.

Natural abundance

Hydrogen is easily the most abundant element in the universe. It is found in the sun and most of the stars, and the planet Jupiter is composed mostly of hydrogen. On Earth, hydrogen is found in the greatest quantities as water. It is present as a gas in the atmosphere only in tiny amounts – less than 1 part per million by volume. Any hydrogen that does enter the atmosphere quickly escapes the Earth’s gravity into outer space.Most hydrogen is produced by heating natural gas with steam to form syngas (a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide). The syngas is separated to give hydrogen. Hydrogen can also be produced by the electrolysis of water.

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History

Elements and Periodic Table History

In the early 1500s the alchemist Paracelsus noted that the bubbles given off when iron filings were added to sulfuric acid were flammable. In 1671 Robert Boyle made the same observation. Neither followed up their discovery of hydrogen, and so Henry Cavendish gets the credit. In 1766 he collected the bubbles and showed that they were different from other gases. He later showed that when hydrogen burns it forms water, thereby ending the belief that water was an element. The gas was given its name hydro-gen, meaning water-former, by Antoine Lavoisier.In 1931, Harold Urey and his colleagues at Columbia University in the US detected a second, rarer, form of hydrogen. This has twice the mass of normal hydrogen, and they named it deuterium.

Glossary

Atomic radius, non-bonded

Half of the distance between two unbonded atoms of the same element when the electrostatic forces are balanced. These values were determined using several different methods.

Covalent radiusHalf of the distance between two atoms within a single covalent bond. Values are given for typical oxidation number and coordination.

Electron affinityThe energy released when an electron is added to the neutral atom and a negative ion is formed.

Electronegativity (Pauling scale)The tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself, expressed on a relative scale.

First ionisation energyThe minimum energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom in its ground state.

Atomic data

Atomic radius, non-bonded (Å)

1.10

Covalent radius (Å)

0.32

Electron affinity (kJ mol−1)

72.769

Electronegativity (Pauling scale)

2.20

Ionisation energies (kJ mol−1)

1st

1312.05

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

6th

7th

8th

Glossary

Bond enthalpy (kJ mol−1)A measure of how much energy is needed to break all of the bonds of the same type in one mole of gaseous molecules.

Bond enthalpies

Covalent bond

Enthalpy (kJ mol−1)

Found in

Br–H

365.7

HBr

Cl–H

431.4

HCl

H–F

565

H–H

435.9

H–N

390.8

NH3

H–P

322

PH3

H–As

247

AsH3

C–H

413

general

C–H

415.5

CH4

H–S

347

H2S

H–I

298.7

H–O

462.8

H2O

H–Se

276

H2Se

H–Si

318

SiH4

Glossary

Common oxidation states

The oxidation state of an atom is a measure of the degree of oxidation of an atom. It is defined as being the charge that an atom would have if all bonds were ionic. Uncombined elements have an oxidation state of 0. The sum of the oxidation states within a compound or ion must equal the overall charge.

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

Key for isotopes

Half life

years

days

hours

minutes

seconds

Mode of decay

alpha particle emission

negative beta (electron) emission

β+

positron emission

orbital electron capture

spontaneous fission

ββ

double beta emission

ECEC

double orbital electron capture

Oxidation states and isotopes

Common oxidation states

1, -1

Isotopes

Isotope

Atomic mass

Natural abundance (%)

Half life

Mode of decay

1.008

99.9885

2.014

0.0115

3.016

12.31 y

β-

Glossary

Data for this section been provided by the British Geological Survey.

Relative supply risk

An integrated supply risk index from 1 (very low risk) to 10 (very high risk). This is calculated by combining the scores for crustal abundance, reserve distribution, production concentration, substitutability, recycling rate and political stability scores.

Crustal abundance (ppm)

The number of atoms of the element per 1 million atoms of the Earth’s crust.

Recycling rate

The percentage of a commodity which is recycled. A higher recycling rate may reduce risk to supply.

Substitutability

The availability of suitable substitutes for a given commodity.

High = substitution not possible or very difficult.

Medium = substitution is possible but there may be an economic and/or performance impact

Low = substitution is possible with little or no economic and/or performance impact

Production concentration

The percentage of an element produced in the top producing country. The higher the value, the larger risk there is to supply.

Reserve distribution

The percentage of the world reserves located in the country with the largest reserves. The higher the value, the larger risk there is to supply.

Political stability of top producer

A percentile rank for the political stability of the top producing country, derived from World Bank governance indicators.

Political stability of top reserve holder

A percentile rank for the political stability of the country with the largest reserves, derived from World Bank governance indicators.

Supply risk

Relative supply risk

Unknown

Crustal abundance (ppm)

1400

Recycling rate (%)

Unknown

Substitutability

Unknown

Production concentration (%)

Unknown

Reserve distribution (%)

Unknown

Top 3 producers

Unknown

Top 3 reserve holders

Unknown

Political stability of top producer

Unknown

Political stability of top reserve holder

Unknown

Glossary

Specific heat capacity (J kg−1 K−1)

Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy needed to change the temperature of a kilogram of a substance by 1 K.

Young's modulus

A measure of the stiffness of a substance. It provides a measure of how difficult it is to extend a material, with a value given by the ratio of tensile strength to tensile strain.

Shear modulus

A measure of how difficult it is to deform a material. It is given by the ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain.

Bulk modulus

A measure of how difficult it is to compress a substance. It is given by the ratio of the pressure on a body to the fractional decrease in volume.

Vapour pressure

A measure of the propensity of a substance to evaporate. It is defined as the equilibrium pressure exerted by the gas produced above a substance in a closed system.

Pressure and temperature data – advanced

Specific heat capacity (J kg−1 K−1)

14304

Young's modulus (GPa)

Unknown

Shear modulus (GPa)

Unknown

Bulk modulus (GPa)

Unknown

Vapour pressure

Temperature (K)

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

Pressure (Pa)

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Podcasts

Listen to Hydrogen Podcast

Transcript :

Chemistry in its element: hydrogen (Promo)You're listening to Chemistry in its element brought to you by Chemistry World, the magazine of the Royal Society of Chemistry.(End promo)Meera SenthilingamThis week we hear what its like to be at the top, and number one, as we meet the King of the Elements. Here's Brian Clegg.Brian CleggForget 10 Downing Street or 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, the most prestigious address in the universe is number one in the periodic table, hydrogen. In science, simplicity and beauty are often equated - and that makes hydrogen as beautiful as they come, a single proton and a lone electron making the most compact element in existence.Hydrogen has been around since atoms first formed in the residue of the Big Bang, and is the most abundant element by far. Despite billions of years of countless stars fusing hydrogen into helium it still makes up 75 per cent of the detectable content of the universe.This light, colourless, highly flammable gas carries on its uniqueness by having the only named isotopes (and some of the best known at that), deuterium with an added neutron in the nucleus and tritium with two neutrons.Hydrogen is an essential for life, the universe and just about everything. Life, in fact, is multiply dependent on it. Without hydrogen we wouldn't have the Sun to give us heat and light. There would be no useful organic compounds to form the building blocks of life. And that most essential substance for life's existence, water, would not exist.It's only thanks to a special trick of hydrogen's that we can use water at all. Hydrogen forms weak bonds between molecules, latching onto adjacent oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atoms. It's these hydrogen bonds that give water many of its properties. If they didn't exist, the boiling point of water would be below -70 degrees Celsius. Liquid water would not feature on the Earth.Hydrogen was the unwitting discovery of Paracelsus, the sixteenth century Swiss alchemist also known as Theophrastus Philippus Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim. He found that something flammable bubbled off metals that were dropped into strong acids, unaware of the chemical reaction that was forming metal salts and releasing hydrogen, something a number of others including Robert Boyle would independently discover over the years. However, the first person to realize hydrogen was a unique substance, one he called 'inflammable air,' was Henry Cavendish, the noble ancestor of William Cavendish who later gave his name to what would become the world's most famous physics laboratory in Cambridge. Between the 1760s and 1780s, Henry not only isolated hydrogen, but found that when it burned it combined with oxygen (or 'dephlogisticated air' as it was called) to produce water. These clumsy terms were swept aside by French chemist Antoine Lavoisier who changed chemical naming for good, calling inflammable air 'hydrogen', the gene, or creator, of hydro, water. Because hydrogen is so light, the pure element isn't commonly found on the Earth. It would just float away. The prime components of air, nitrogen and oxygen, are fourteen and sixteen times heavier, giving hydrogen dramatic buoyancy. This lightness of hydrogen made it a natural for one of its first practical uses - filling balloons. No balloon soars as well as a hydrogen balloon. The first such aerial vessel was the creation of French scientist Jacques Charles in 1783, who was inspired by the Montgolfier brothers' hot air success a couple of months before to use hydrogen in a balloon of silk impregnated with rubber. Hydrogen seemed to have a guaranteed future in flying machines, reinforced by the invention of airships built on a rigid frame, called dirigibles in the UK but better known by their German nickname of Zeppelins, after their enthusiastic promoter Graf Ferdinand von Zeppelin.These airships were soon the liners of the sky, carrying passengers safely and smoothly across the Atlantic. But despite the ultimate lightness of hydrogen it has another property that killed off airships - hydrogen is highly flammable. The destruction of the vast zeppelin the Hindenburg, probably by fire caused by static electricity, was seen on film by shocked audiences around the world. The hydrogen airship was doomed.Yet hydrogen has remained a player in the field of transport because of the raw efficiency of its combustion. Many of NASA's rockets, including the second and third stages of the Apollo Program's Saturn V and the Space Shuttle main engines, are powered by burning liquid hydrogen with pure oxygen.More recently still, hydrogen has been proposed as a replacement for fossil fuels in cars. Here it has the big advantage over petrol of burning to provide only water. No greenhouse gasses are emitted. The most likely way to employ hydrogen is not to burn it explosively, but to use it in a fuel cell, where an electrochemical reaction is used to produce electricity to power the vehicle.Not everyone is convinced that hydrogen fuelled cars are the future, though. We would need a network of hydrogen fuel stations, and it remains a dangerous, explosive substance. At the same time, it is less efficient than petrol, because a litre of petrol has about three times more useful energy in it than a litre of liquid hydrogen (if you use compressed hydrogen gas that can go up to ten times more). The other problem is obtaining the hydrogen. It either comes from hydrocarbons, potentially leaving a residue of greenhouse gasses, or from electrolysing water, using electricity that may not be cleanly generated. But even if we don't get hydrogen fuelled cars, hydrogen still has a future in a more dramatic energy source - nuclear fusion, the power source of the sun. Fusion power stations are tens of years away from being practical, but hold out the hope of clean, plentiful energy.However we use hydrogen, though, we can't take away its prime position. It is numero uno, the ultimate, the king of the elements.Meera SenthilingamSo it's the most abundant element, is essential for life on earth, fuels space rockets and could resolve our fossil fuel dependents. You can see why Brian Clegg classes hydrogen as number one. Now next week we meet the time keeper of the periodic table. Tom Bond One current use is in atomic clocks, though rubidium is considered less accurate than caesium. The rubidium version of the atomic clock employs the transition between two hyperfine energy states of the rubidium-87 isotope. These clocks use microwave radiation which is tuned until it matches the hyperfine transition, at which point the interval between wave crests of the radiation can be used to calibrate time itself. Meera SenthilingamAnd to find out more of the roles of Rubidium join Tom Bond on next week's Chemistry in its Element. Until then I'm Meera Senthilingam, thanks for listening and goodbye. (Promo)Chemistry in its element is brought to you by the Royal Society of Chemistry and produced by thenakedscientists.com. There's more information and other episodes of Chemistry in its element on our website at chemistryworld.org/elements. (End promo)

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References

Visual Elements images and videos© Murray Robertson 1998-2017. DataW. M. Haynes, ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 95th Edition, Internet Version 2015, accessed December 2014.

Tables of Physical & Chemical Constants, Kaye & Laby Online, 16th edition, 1995. Version 1.0 (2005), accessed December 2014.

J. S. Coursey, D. J. Schwab, J. J. Tsai, and R. A. Dragoset, Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions (version 4.1), 2015, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, accessed November 2016.

T. L. Cottrell, The Strengths of Chemical Bonds, Butterworth, London, 1954. Uses and propertiesJohn Emsley, Nature’s Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements, Oxford University Press, New York, 2nd Edition, 2011.

Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility - Office of Science Education, It’s Elemental - The Periodic Table of Elements, accessed December 2014.

Periodic Table of Videos, accessed December 2014. Supply risk dataDerived in part from material provided by the British Geological Survey © NERC. History textElements 1-112, 114, 116 and 117 © John Emsley 2012. Elements 113, 115, 117 and 118 © Royal Society of Chemistry 2017. PodcastsProduced by The Naked Scientists. Periodic Table of Videos

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Energy system

Low-Emission Fuels

Hydrogen

Overview

Tracking

Programmes

Why is it important?

Hydrogen is a versatile energy carrier, which can help tackle various critical energy challenges. Today, hydrogen is mainly used in the refining and chemical sectors and produced using fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas, and thus responsible for significant annual CO2 emissions.

What is the role in clean energy transitions?

Clean hydrogen produced with renewable or nuclear energy, or fossil fuels using carbon capture, can help to decarbonise a range of sectors, including long-haul transport, chemicals, and iron and steel, where it has proven difficult to reduce emissions. Hydrogen-powered vehicles would improve air quality and promote energy security. Hydrogen can also support the integration of variable renewables in the electricity system, being one of the few options for storing energy over days, weeks or months.

Where do we need to go?

The momentum behind hydrogen is strong. Nine countries – which cover around 30% of global energy sector emissions today – released their national strategies in 2021-2022. However, faster action is required to create demand for low-emission hydrogen and unlock investment that can accelerate production scale-up and bring down the costs of technologies for producing and using clean hydrogen, such as electrolysers, fuel cells and hydrogen production with carbon capture.

Why is it important?

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What is the role in clean energy transitions?

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Latest findings

Low-emission hydrogen production can grow massively by 2030 but cost challenges are hampering deployment

The number of announced projects for low-emission hydrogen production is rapidly expanding. Annual production of low-emission hydrogen could reach 38 Mt in 2030, if all announced projects are realised, although 17 Mt come from projects at early stages of development. The potential production by 2030 from announced projects to date is 50% larger than it was at the time of the release of the IEA’s Global Hydrogen Review 2022.

Global hydrogen use reached 95 Mt in 2022, a nearly 3% increase year-on-year, with strong growth in all major consuming regions except Europe, which suffered a hit to industrial activity due to the sharp increase in natural gas prices. This global growth does not reflect a success of policy efforts to expand the use of hydrogen, but rather is linked to general global energy trends.

Global Hydrogen Review 2023circle-arrow

Tracking Hydrogen

More efforts needed

Hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels can play an important role in the decarbonisation of sectors where emissions are hard to abate and alternative solutions are either unavailable or difficult to implement, such as heavy industry and long-distance transport. The announcements for new projects for the production of low-emission hydrogen keep growing, but only 5% have taken firm investment decisions due to uncertainties around the future evolution of demand, the lack of clarity about certification and regulation and the lack of infrastructure available to deliver hydrogen to end users. On the demand side, hydrogen demand keeps growing, but remains concentrated in traditional applications. Novel applications in heavy industry and long-distance transport account for less than 0.1% of hydrogen demand, whereas they account for one-third of global hydrogen demand by 2030 in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 (NZE) Scenario. A growing number of countries are releasing national strategies and adopting concrete policies to support first movers. But the delays in the implementation of these policies and the lack of policies for demand creation are preventing the scale-up of low-emission hydrogen production and use. To get on track with the NZE Scenario, accelerated policy action is required on creating demand for low-emission hydrogen and unlocking investment that can accelerate production scale-up and deployment of infrastructure.

Tracking Clean Energy Progress 2023circle-arrow

Country and regional highlights

Chevron down

The United States and the European Union lead policy action, while China has taken the lead in deployment

China leads on electrolyser capacity additions, with a cumulated capacity of almost 220 MW in 2022 and 750 MW under construction expected to be online this year. The European Union adopted two delegated acts in February 2023 with rules to define renewable hydrogen, approved funding for the first two waves of hydrogen-related Important Projects of Common European Interest in 2022 and announced the first auctions of the European Hydrogen Bank for the end of 2023. India approved in January 2023 the National Green Hydrogen Mission with the aim of producing 5 Mt of renewable hydrogen by 2030 and of becoming a leading manufacturer of electrolysers. The United Kingdom released in July 2022 its Low-Carbon Hydrogen Standard and in February 2023 launched a consultation for a certification scheme. The first Electrolytic Allocation Round to support projects to produce hydrogen using electrolysis was launched, with the aim of awarding contracts by the end of 2023. The United States announced in August 2022 important incentives for the production of clean hydrogen under the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA). Namibia released in November 2022 its Green Hydrogen and Derivatives Strategy, joining South Africa as the only sub-Saharan countries that have adopted a hydrogen strategy.

CO2 emissions

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Hydrogen applications play a fundamental role in sectors where emissions are hard to abate, but production needs to become cleaner

In the NZE Scenario, the use of low-emission hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels lead to modest reductions in CO2 emissions in 2030 compared to other key mitigation measures, such as the deployment of renewables, direct electrification and behavioural change. However, hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels can play an important role in sectors where emissions are hard to abate and other mitigation measures may not be available or would be difficult to implement, namely heavy industry, long-distance transport, shipping and aviation. Hydrogen's total contribution is also larger in the longer term as hydrogen-based technologies mature. Replacing unabated fossil fuel-based hydrogen with low-emission hydrogen in existing applications (namely refining and industry sectors) is a short-term priority given that it presents relatively low technical challenges as it is a like-for-like substitution rather than a fuel switch. Current production of hydrogen for these applications emits 1 100-1 300 Mt CO2 equivalent1 (including upstream and midstream emissions from fossil fuel supply). In the NZE Scenario the average emissions intensity of hydrogen production drops from the range of 12-13.5 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 in 2022 to 6-7.5 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 in 2030. 1. The range in the emissions and in the average emissions intensity reflects the different allocation methods for the by-product hydrogen production in refineries.

Global hydrogen production CO2 emissions and average emissions intensity in the Net Zero Scenario, 2019-2030

Openexpand

Energy

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Low-emission hydrogen production remained below 1% of global hydrogen production in 2022

Global hydrogen production by technology in the Net Zero Scenario, 2019-2030

Openexpand

Dedicated hydrogen production today is primarily based on fossil fuel technologies, with around a sixth of the global hydrogen supply coming from “by-product” hydrogen, mainly in the petrochemical industry. In 2022, 70% of the energy requirement for dedicated hydrogen production was met with natural gas and around 30% with coal (mostly used in China, which alone accounted for 90% of global coal consumption for hydrogen production). Low-emission hydrogen production represented less than 1% of total hydrogen production in 2022, despite growing 5% compared to 2021. This increase in low-emission hydrogen production is the result of 130 MW of electrolysis capacity and one project starting operation in China for the production of hydrogen from coal with CCUS entering into operation during 2022. Getting on track with the NZE Scenario requires a rapid scale-up of low-emission hydrogen, with around 50 Mt of hydrogen production based on electrolysis and more than 30 Mt produced from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030, for a total of more than 50% of hydrogen production. This will require an installed capacity of more than 550 GW of electrolysers, which in turn requires both a rapid scale-up of electrolyser manufacturing capacity (see Electrolysers page) and significant deployment of dedicated renewable capacity for hydrogen production and enhancement of the power grid. With regard to fossil fuels, by 2030 natural gas demand for hydrogen production is almost 30% higher than in 2022 in the NZE Scenario, while coal demand drops by nearly one-fifth. In both cases, newly deployed production capacity is equipped with CCUS and a fraction of existing facilities still operational in 2030 are retrofitted with CCUS.

Technology deployment

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Global demand for hydrogen grew around 3% in 2022, but still remains concentrated in traditional applications with slow penetration in new uses

Global hydrogen demand by sector in the Net Zero Scenario, 2020-2030

Openexpand

Global hydrogen demand reached 95 Mt in 2022, almost 3% more than in 2021. Hydrogen demand remains concentrated in traditional applications in the refining and industrial sectors (including chemicals and natural gas-based Direct Iron Reduction [DRI]), with very limited penetration in new applications. Demand in new applications, such as transport, high-temperature heat in industry, hydrogen-based DRI, power and buildings, represents less than 0.1% of global demand. Most of this demand is concentrated in road transport, although other applications are starting to get some traction. Several demonstrations of key end uses for low-emission hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels entered into operation in the past year in chemicals production, refining, high-temperature heating and shipping. Bringing these technologies to commercialisation as soon as possible will be critical to unlocking a significant fraction of demand in these new applications. Getting on track with the NZE Scenario will require a step-change in demand creation, particularly in new applications. By 2030 hydrogen demand increases by more than 1.5 times to reach more than 150 Mt, with nearly 30% of that demand coming from new applications.

Supporting infrastructure

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Transport and storage infrastructure for hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels remains very limited, but its scale-up is crucial as new distributed applications arise

Hydrogen is today mostly produced and consumed in the same location, without the need for transport infrastructure. With demand for hydrogen increasing and the advent of new distributed uses, there is a need to develop hydrogen infrastructure that connects production and demand centres. Pipelines are the most efficient and least costly way to transport hydrogen up to a distance of 2 500 to 3 000 km, for capacities around 200 kt per year. About 2 600 km of hydrogen pipelines are in operation in the United States and 2 000 km in Europe, mainly owned by private companies and used to connect industrial users. Several countries are developing plans for new hydrogen infrastructure, with Europe leading the way. The European Hydrogen Backbone initiative established in 2020 groups together 32 gas infrastructure operators with the aim of establishing a pan-European hydrogen infrastructure. In June 2022, the Dutch government announced a plan to invest EUR 750 million in the development of a national hydrogen transmission network of 1 400 km. Staying on track with the NZE Scenario would require around 15 000 km of hydrogen pipelines (including new and repurposed pipes) by 2030. For transporting hydrogen over long distances, shipping hydrogen and hydrogen carriers are more cost-competitive than hydrogen pipelines. In February 2022 the Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain project demonstrated for the first time the shipment of liquefied hydrogen from Australia to Japan. However, due to the technical challenges of shipping liquefied hydrogen, a growing number of projects are considering the possibility of transporting ammonia, although all these projects are still at very early stages of development, with the exception of the NEOM project, which reached financial closure in March 2023. In the NZE Scenario, more than 15 Mt of low-emission hydrogen (in the form of hydrogen or hydrogen-based fuels) are shipped globally by 2030. The development of infrastructure for hydrogen storage will also be needed. Salt caverns are already in use for industrial-scale storage in the United States and the United Kingdom. The potential role of hydrogen in balancing the power grid and the potential development of international trade would require the development of more storage capacity and its flexible operation. Several research projects are ongoing for the demonstration of fast cycling in large-scale hydrogen storage, such as HyCAVmobil in Germany and HyPSTER in France, with both planning to start tests this year. Other research projects in the Netherlands, Germany and France are analysing the potential for repurposing natural gas salt caverns for hydrogen storage. Research and demonstration is also progressing in the development of other types of underground storage sites (such as depleted gas fields, aquifers and lined hard rock caverns). In 2022, a demonstration facility to store hydrogen in lined hard rock caverns started operating in Sweden. In the NZE Scenario, global bulk storage capacity rises from 0.5 TWh today to 70 TWh by 2030.

Innovation

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Low-emission hydrogen production technologies are maturing fast, but more effort is needed on demand-side technologies

Not all steps of the low-emission hydrogen value chain are operating at commercial scale today. On the supply side, some technologies are already commercially available, such as alkaline and proton membrane exchange electrolysers. Other technologies, such as Solid Oxide Electrolysers (SOEC), are approaching commercialisation thanks to recent innovation efforts. In April 2023, a 2.6 MW SOEC electrolyser was installed in a Neste refinery in the Netherlands and just few weeks later, Bloom Energy installed a 4 MW SOEC system in a NASA research centre in California. Transport and storage technologies are also quite mature, although still at small scale. Innovation and demonstration efforts are underway to bring these technologies to the scale needed to facilitate the adoption of hydrogen as a clean energy vector. In April 2023, the world’s first hydrogen storage facility in an underground porous reservoir started operation. On the demand side, the situation is different. Beyond traditional uses of hydrogen in refining and industrial applications which are fully commercial, the majority of demand technologies are only at the demonstration or prototype stage, but there has been some recent progress. In March 2023, the world’s first hydrogen ferry entered into operation in Norway. The HyInHeat project also started in 2023, with the aim of demonstrating the use of hydrogen in ancillary high-temperature heating process in industrial applications. But further efforts are needed to unlock the full potential demand for hydrogen in hard-to-abate sectors.

Policy

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Governments are adopting hydrogen strategies and targets for technology deployment, but there is a lack of policies to stimulate demand for low-emission hydrogen

A growing number of governments are adopting strategies and targets for technology deployment, but there is a lack of policy implementation

At the end of 2022, a total of 32 governments had a hydrogen strategy in place. Targets for the deployment of hydrogen production technologies are growing, particularly on electrolysis capacity, with national targets reaching an aggregate of 160-210 GW, which accounts for 30-40% of the installed electrolysis capacity by 2030 in the NZE Scenario. However, there has been very limited progress in establishing targets to increase demand for low-emission hydrogen, with the exception of the European Union, which in March 2023 agreed ambitious targets to stimulate demand in industry and transport. There was also limited progress in the adoption of policies to stimulate demand creation over the past year. The majority of policies in place focus on supporting demand creation in transport applications, mainly through purchase subsidies and grants, while a very small number of policies target industrial applications, despite these applications accounting for most current demand. The adoption of quotas and mandates is another tool that governments have started to consider for supporting demand creation in industry, aviation and shipping, although none of the announced quotas have entered into force yet.

Support for RD&D is growing, with Europe and the United States spearheading efforts

Governments are stepping up efforts to stimulate strategic demonstration of key hydrogen technologies, with new programmes in place: European Union: in January 2023, the EU Clean Hydrogen Partnership opened a EUR 195 million call for proposals to support projects for renewable hydrogen production, storage and distribution solutions, and to stimulate the use of low-emission hydrogen in hard-to-abate sectors. United States: in March 2023, the Department of Energy announced a USD 750 million R&D programme for advanced clean hydrogen technologies. United Kingdom: the government opened the third round of the Clean Maritime Demonstration Competition in September 2022 and launched the second phases of programmes for R&D in hydrogen production using BECCS (December 2022) and replacement of diesel in off-road vehicles and machinery (March 2023).

Governments have started to adopt new mechanisms to support project developers and mitigate investment risk

Several governments have begun to implement policies in the form of grants, loans, tax breaks and carbon contracts for difference. Activity has been particularly intense over the course of 2022 and the beginning of 2023, with several significant announcements: European Union: the European Commission approved in July and in September funding for two waves of hydrogen-related Important Projects of Common European Interest (Hy2Tech, with a focus on hydrogen technologies, and Hy2Use, with a focus on industrial applications). In addition, the first auction of the European Hydrogen Bank to support projects for domestic production of renewable hydrogen has been announced for the end of 2023. Germany: the bidding process of the H2Global initiative was launched in December 2022, with deliveries expected for the end of 2024, although tender deadlines have recently been extended. Japan: NEDO committed JPY 220 billion from the Green Innovation Fund Project to support a liquefied hydrogen supply chain project between Australia and Japan. United Kingdom: Between July 2022 and January 2023, the government opened the first Electrolytic Allocation Round and pre-selected projects, with the aim to support at least 250 MW of capacity. The second allocation round will open by the end of 2023. United States: the government announced the creation of a tax credit, an investment credit and grant funding for low-emission hydrogen production projects. In addition, in September 2022, the Department of Energy opened a USD 7 billion call for regional clean hydrogen hubs.

The development of standards and certification schemes for low-emission hydrogen is gaining pace

The International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy is expected to release the final version of its Methodology for Determining the Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with the Production of Hydrogen in July 2023. This methodology will serve as the basis for an International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard. ISO is seeking to develop a draft technical specification by end of 2023 and a draft international standard by the end of 2024. In parallel, governments are working on the establishment of regulatory frameworks and certification schemes. Australia is developing a voluntary scheme for Guarantee of Origin certificates. The European Commission adopted two delegated acts in February 2023 with rules to define renewable hydrogen, which will be in force once the Council and the Parliament approve them. France is working on the details of a certification schemes for the hydrogen categories defined in its Ordinance No. 2021-167. The United Kingdom released a Low-Carbon Hydrogen Standard in July 2022 and in February 2023 launched a consultation for a certification scheme. And the US Department of Energy proposed in September 2022 a Clean Hydrogen Production Standard and is working on the methodological details for its application in supportive schemes such as the IRA Clean Hydrogen Production Tax Credit. However, the methodologies defined for these certification schemes are not necessarily aligned. This may become an important barrier as the investments that will lead to trade in low-emission hydrogen will rely on international recognition of standards and certificates.

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First there was hydrogen

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In Your Element

Published: 20 February 2015

First there was hydrogen

Wojciech Grochala1

Nature Chemistry

volume 7, page 264 (2015)Cite this article

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A Correction to this article was published on 22 April 2015

This article has been updated

Wojciech Grochala describes how the oldest, lightest and most abundant element in the universe continues to play an essential role on today's Earth.

The history of hydrogen — the element that fills the world as we know it — consists of a most dramatic set of events. Hydrogen and helium atoms emerged a measly 379,000 years after the Big Bang. As the hot, dense plasma of protons, electrons and photons that was the universe began to cool and expand, electrons and protons gathered to form atoms. Four hundred million years later stars — such as our very own Sun — evolved from gravitationally collapsed clouds of hydrogen gas, providing the heat necessary to sustain life in an otherwise giant, freezing, cosmic abyss at 2.7 kelvin. The third colossal breakthrough in hydrogen history came some 4.4 billion years ago, when the temperature on Earth dropped below 100 °C and dihydrogen oxide began to condense at its surface, allowing the emergence of life in the new aqueous environment.Today hydrogen is estimated to account for 90% of all atoms in the universe, and it is essential to the material world. That includes ourselves: close to two-thirds of the atoms in our bodies are hydrogen. By no means an unproductive mass, the first element of the periodic table makes for an excellent chemical fuel — one that has been attracting increasing attention. The early Earth's atmosphere was rich in hydrogen, and bacterial enzymes called hydrogenases evolved to generate energy from molecular H2 or H2O (ref. 1). Microorganisms proliferated under reducing conditions, and many of those have survived on hydrogen fuel to this day.

Credit: LIBRARY OF CONGRESS / SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARYVan Helmont was the first to find out that although hydrogen was combustible in air, it could not support combustion by itself. In 1671 Robert Boyle described the formation of gas bubbles from the reaction of iron filings with acid, but it was Cavendish who recognized H2 (which he referred to as 'inflammable air') as a substance distinct from other gases, which, when it was burnt in 'dephlogisticated air' (oxygen) produced water. This discovery inspired Lavoisier to call the substance 'hydro-gen', meaning water-former, in 1783. Conversely, in 1800 Nicholson and Carlisle (shortly followed by Ritter) managed to decompose water into its elemental constituents using electrolysis. It is this process that we try to achieve today, although with a much smaller electric bill, through a photochemical process2. The evolved H2 gas is an excellent, ultra-light energy carrier, and very promising as a fuel — abundant and environmentally friendly as its oxidation produces water. Molecular H2 filled one of the first balloons used to carry people in 1783 (pictured), and the fuel tanks of rockets two centuries later, permitting the inquisitive to explore further and further.For practical applications, however, it must be stored in either a compressed, liquefied or solid state3. In 1970 in the Philips Research laboratories it was accidentally discovered that hydrogen could be reversibly taken up by intermetallic compounds in the form of a hydride4. This led to spectacular success for electrochemical hydrogen storage, and the first mass-produced nickel–metal-hydride battery-powered vehicles hit the roads of Japan in 1997. Together with vigorous development of hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells and solid proton conductors5, these advances bring us closer to fulfilling Jules Verne's dream that “hydrogen and oxygen ... will furnish an inexhaustible source of heat and light”, mentioned in The Mysterious Island as early as 1874.Because H and H2 constitute the prototypical atom and molecule, respectively, they have been extensively used by theoreticians for over a century — since the birth of quantum mechanics. These two species have served as test beds for rigorous critical evaluations of diverse quantum mechanical models and approximations6. The oxidation states of hydrogen span from −1 (hydride), through 0 (elemental), to +1 (proton), with very different physicochemical properties for each species. The H2 molecule — isoelectronic to the closed-shell He atom in the unified atom model — is quite inert. It was only in 1984 that Kubas described the coordination of molecular H2 to transition metals7. On the contrary, the H− anion is a very strong base and a strong reducing agent, whereas H+ is a voracious acid and a powerful oxidizer; non (or very slightly)-hydrated protons present in a superacidic environment readily convert alkanes into carbocations8. Indeed, hydrogen has been a key element in establishing quite reasonable theories of acidity and basicity, which came to be viewed as proton transfer reactions in the Brønsted-Lowry theory.The first element has never ceased to be of prime importance to many aspects of our world, and this is poised to continue with its major role in sustainable energy strategies.

Change history18 March 2015In the In Your Element article 'First there was hydrogen' (Nature Chem. 7, 264; 2015), the image was incorrect and did not depict a hydrogen balloon. The sentence referring to the image should have read 'Molecular H2 filled one of the first balloons used to carry people in 1783 (pictured), and the fuel tanks of rockets two centuries later, permitting the inquisitive to explore further and further.' These errors have been corrected in the online versions after print: 18 March 2015.ReferencesVignais, P. M. & Billoud, B. Chem. Rev. 107, 4206–4272 (2007).Article

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Download referencesAuthor informationAuthors and AffiliationsWojciech Grochala is in the Center of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Żwirki i Wigury 93, 02089 Warsaw, Poland, Wojciech GrochalaAuthorsWojciech GrochalaView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in

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Nature Chem 7, 264 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/nchem.2186Download citationPublished: 20 February 2015Issue Date: March 2015DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nchem.2186Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy to clipboard

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