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土耳其(土耳其共和国)_百度百科
土耳其共和国)_百度百科 网页新闻贴吧知道网盘图片视频地图文库资讯采购百科百度首页登录注册进入词条全站搜索帮助首页秒懂百科特色百科知识专题加入百科百科团队权威合作下载百科APP个人中心土耳其是一个多义词,请在下列义项上选择浏览(共6个义项)展开添加义项土耳其[tǔ ěr qí]播报讨论上传视频土耳其共和国收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10土耳其共和国(土耳其语:Türkiye Cumhuriyeti;英语:The Republic of Türkiye [15]),简称土耳其,是一个横跨亚欧大陆两洲的国家,北临黑海,南临地中海,东南与叙利亚、伊拉克接壤,西临爱琴海,与希腊以及保加利亚接壤,东部与格鲁吉亚、亚美尼亚、阿塞拜疆和伊朗接壤。土耳其地理位置和地缘政治战略意义极为重要,是连接欧亚的十字路口,首都安卡拉,国土面积78.36万平方公里,人口8528万(截至2023年2月) [33],土耳其族占80%以上,库尔德族约占15%,全国共分为81个省。1299年奥斯曼一世建立奥斯曼帝国。1453年5月29日,穆罕默德二世攻陷君士坦丁堡,灭拜占庭帝国,16世纪~17世纪,尤其是苏莱曼一世统治时达到鼎盛时期,统治区域地跨欧洲、亚洲和非洲。因此奥斯曼帝国的君主苏丹视自己为天下之主, [1]土耳其继承了东罗马帝国的文化和伊斯兰文化,因而东西文明在此得以统合。19世纪时国力开始衰落,1914年8月奥斯曼帝国在第一次世界大战中加入同盟国作战,战后帝国解体。1919年,土耳其在凯末尔的领导下击退外国侵略者。1923年10月29日,土耳其共和国成立。 [1]土耳其地跨亚、欧两大洲,在政治、经济、文化等领域均实行欧洲模式,是欧盟的候选国。土耳其是北约成员国,也是经济合作与发展组织创始会员国和二十国集团的成员。拥有雄厚的工业基础,为世界新兴经济体之一,亦是全球发展最快的国家之一。2021年土耳其国内生产总值8027亿美元,人均国内生产总值9539美元,国内生产总值增长率11.0%。 [1]中文名土耳其共和国外文名Türkiye Cumhuriyeti(土耳其语)The Republic of Türkiye [15](英语)简 称土耳其所属洲亚洲、欧洲首 都安卡拉主要城市伊斯坦布尔,伊兹密尔,布尔萨,阿达纳,加济安泰普,安塔利亚等国庆日1923年10月29日国 歌《独立进行曲》国家代码TUR官方语言土耳其语货 币新土耳其里拉、辅币库鲁时 区UTC+3政治体制总统制共和制国家领袖雷杰普·塔伊普·埃尔多安(总统)人口数量8528 万 [33](2023年2月)人口密度109.6 人/平方公里(2020年)主要民族土耳其人、库尔德人主要宗教伊斯兰教(逊尼派)国土面积783600 km²水域率1.3%GDP总计9055 亿美元 [1](2022年)人均GDP10655 美元(2022年)国际电话区号90国际域名缩写.tr道路通行靠右行驶国 鸟红翼鸫国家格言“祖国安宁,世界太平”货币换算1新土耳其里拉=100库鲁注 音ㄊㄨˇ ㄦˇ ㄑㄧˊ主要学府伊斯坦布尔大学、马尔马拉大学目录1历史沿革▪古典时代▪突厥人迁入▪塞尔柱帝国▪罗姆苏丹国▪奥斯曼侯国▪奥斯曼帝国▪土耳其共和国2地理环境▪区域位置▪地形地貌▪气候特征3自然资源4行政区划▪政区▪首都5国家象征▪国名▪国旗▪国徽▪国歌▪国花6人口民族▪人口▪民族7政治▪政体▪宪法▪议会▪政府▪政党▪司法▪政要8经济▪货币▪农业▪工业▪旅游业▪金融▪对外贸易▪双向投资▪外国援助9文化▪语言▪宗教▪文学▪音乐▪戏剧电影▪节日▪习俗10军事▪综述▪国防▪军力11交通▪空运▪航运▪铁路▪公路12社会▪科教▪医疗▪媒体▪通讯▪电力13外交▪外交政策▪对外关系14美食15旅游▪概况▪购物16世界遗产17相关新闻历史沿革播报编辑古典时代从亚伯拉罕到诺亚方舟所停泊的亚拉拉特山,安纳托利亚在圣经时代已在文明史上扮演重要地位。西台人(又译作赫梯人,Hattians)、鲁维人(Luwian)及胡里特人相继占领小亚细亚,世界文化遗产赫梯帝国都城哈图沙遗址位于土耳其中部乔鲁姆省的博兹柯伊村 [12]。赫梯国家大约形成于公元前17世纪,初为小国,后以哈图沙为中心形成联盟,渐趋统一,公元前13世纪赫梯帝国进入鼎盛时期。公元前13世纪末,腓尼基人席卷东部地中海地区,赫梯被肢解。公元前8世纪,残存的赫梯帝国被亚述帝国灭亡。虽然最终灭亡,但赫梯帝国对古代世界文明的发展产生了深远的影响。他们最先发明和使用铁器,大大推动了人类生产力的进步。如今风行于欧洲各国徽章和旗帜的双头鹰标志,据说最早溯源于古代赫梯帝国 [12]。于是许多讲印欧语的民族,以及“海上民族”纷纷迁入这一地区,形成了一波移民浪潮。弗里吉亚人也在这批移民之内,他们于前9世纪至前8世纪时建立了以戈尔迪乌姆为都城的王国。外来者的入侵使赫梯人和特洛伊的文明都遭到彻底的毁灭。 [2]突厥人迁入古代突厥人大约在八世纪初,阿拉伯帝国攻占中亚各地,西突厥也被纳入其统治。塞尔柱帝国乌古斯酋长塞尔柱原住锡尔河东岸,后来为了避免西喀拉汗王朝的侵略,后南下由孙子在1037年建立大塞尔柱帝国。在东罗马帝国浮沉的几个世纪里,一个游牧民族——突厥人(Turk)开始从亚洲中部向西迁徙,由于坚强好战的天性,很快占领了衰落的白益王朝的地盘,并以波斯伊斯法罕为中心,建立了属于他们自己的帝国。 [2]罗姆苏丹国1077年Suleyman建国。1095年乌尔班二世发起十字军东侵。1221年蒙古帝国摧毁花剌子模的莫夫城,乌古斯人卡耶部落由中亚的莫夫城的草原上逃难到小亚细亚,小亚细亚塞尔柱帝国(罗姆苏丹国)收容他们,并开始向蒙古人称臣纳贡。1243年蒙古人打败小亚细亚罗姆苏丹国,收为藩属。1308年被旭烈兀(Hulagu)所建立的伊儿汗国所灭,被设为罗马省。 [2]奥斯曼侯国当罗姆苏丹国灭亡后,这个王国分裂成了36个小候国,其中就有一个比较大的侯国叫奥斯曼,奥斯曼侯国逐渐吞并了其他的侯国,并成功击退了外族入侵,建立了奥斯曼帝国。 [2]奥斯曼帝国穆罕默德二世及其军队进入君士坦丁堡为土耳其人所建立的一个帝国,创立者为奥斯曼一世。土耳其人初居中亚内陆地区,后迁至小亚细亚的安纳托利亚半岛,日渐兴盛。极盛时势力达欧亚非三大洲,领有南欧、巴尔干半岛、中东及北非之大部分领土和属地,西达直布罗陀海峡,东抵里海及波斯湾,北及今之奥地利和斯洛文尼亚,南及今北苏丹与也门。自消灭东罗马帝国后,定都于君士坦丁堡、改名伊斯坦布尔,且以东罗马帝国的继承人自居。奥斯曼帝国的君主苏丹视自己为天下之主,它将游牧部落的传统、波斯的艺术修养、拜占庭的政治文明和阿拉伯的科学文化融于一身,继承了东罗马帝国的文化及伊斯兰文化,因而东西文明在其得以统合。奥斯曼帝国位处东西文明交汇处,并掌握东西文明的陆上交通线达六个世纪之久。在其存在期间,不止一次实行伊斯兰化及现代化改革,使得东西文明的界限日趋模糊。奥斯曼帝国对西方文明影响举足轻重,其建筑师希南名留至今。奥斯曼帝国16世纪,苏莱曼大帝在位之时,日趋鼎盛,其领土在17世纪更达最高峰。在巴巴罗萨·海雷丁的带领下,其海军更掌控地中海。奥斯曼帝国是15世纪至19世纪唯一能挑战崛起的欧洲国家的伊斯兰势力,但奥斯曼帝国终不能抵挡近代化欧洲国家的冲击,于19世纪初趋于没落,并最终于第一次世界大战里败于协约国之手,奥斯曼帝国因而分裂。之后凯末尔领导起义,击退欧洲列强势力,建立土耳其共和国,奥斯曼帝国至此灭亡。土耳其共和国土耳其国父凯末尔出生于马其顿的穆斯塔法·凯末尔实现了“青年土耳其党”多年以来的梦想:建立一个现代化的土耳其民族国家。土耳其人从此开始了对自己政务的管理,他们进一步巩固安卡拉,并将其设为首都,废除了伊斯兰教君主政体。穆斯塔法·凯末尔成为新建立的世俗共和国的总统以及共和国人民党。之后,他被授予“土耳其之父”的姓氏。阿塔尔图克建立起民主政体。阿塔图尔克的继任人,伊斯梅特·伊纳尼小心翼翼地不让土耳其卷入第二次世界大战,但战争结束后,土耳其却发现自己成了美国的同盟国。当时亚美尼亚边境就是苏联边界的标志,由于土耳其重要的战略地位,它成为对抗苏联的前沿阵地,故随之开始接受美国援助。此后不久,土耳其成为北大西洋公约组织的成员。 [2]地理环境播报编辑区域位置土耳其位于亚洲最西部,横跨欧洲、亚洲两大洲。国土面积78.36万平方公里,其中97%位于亚洲的小亚细亚半岛(又称安纳托利亚半岛);3%位于欧洲的巴尔干半岛,称为东色雷斯。土耳其三面环海,北为黑海,西为爱琴海和马尔马拉海,南为地中海,海岸线长7200公里。土耳其与亚、欧8个国家相邻,陆地边境线长2648公里。东有格鲁吉亚、亚美尼亚、阿塞拜疆、伊朗;东南有伊拉克、叙利亚;西有保加利亚、希腊;北部隔海与罗马尼亚、俄罗斯、乌克兰相望;南部隔海与塞浦路斯相对。 [17]地形地貌土耳其地形复杂,从沿海平原到山区草场,从雪松林到绵延的大草原。这里是世界植物资源最丰富的地区之一。阿勒山(又译作亚拉腊山或亚拉拉特山)高达5,165米,山顶终年积雪覆盖,景色最为壮观,吸引了众多游客。此外,这还是一个河流湖泊众多的国度,底格里斯河和幼发拉底河均发源于此。 [2]气候特征土耳其西部及南部沿海地区属典型的地中海型气候,夏季炎热、少雨,冬季则温和、多雨。北部沿海地区终年温和、多雨。中部和东部等非沿海地区为大陆型高原气候,夏季炎热、干燥,冬季寒冷、多雨,温差较大。内陆地区1月平均气温在0℃以下,全年平均气温为16-22℃,年降雨量平均在200-400毫米;沿海地区全年降雨量为500-700毫米。南部沿海地区夏季极端气温达40℃。东部地区冬季极端气温达零下40℃。 [17]自然资源播报编辑土耳其矿产资源丰富,主要有天然石、大理石、硼矿、铬、钍和煤等,总值超过2万亿美元。其中,天然石和大理石储量占世界40%,品种数量均居世界第一。三氧化二硼储量7000万吨,价值3560亿美元;钍储量占全球总储量的22%;铬矿储量1亿吨,居世界前列。此外,黄金、白银、煤储量分别为516吨、1100吨和155亿吨。土耳其陆上石油、天然气资源匮乏,黑海水域天然气储量4050亿立方米。土耳其河流资源丰富,湖泊众多,著名的底格里斯河和幼发拉底河均发源于该国境内。土耳其森林资源也很丰富,面积22万平方公里,森林覆盖率居中东国家之首。土耳其60%的国土适于农业耕种,而实际开垦只占20%。 [17]行政区划播报编辑政区土耳其行政区划等级为省、市(县)、乡、村。全国共有81个省,面积最大的省为中南部的科尼亚省,面积最小的省为西部的亚洛瓦省。 [17]土耳其政区序号省面积人口(2000年)人口密度省会人口1阿达纳省14256 km²1849478129.73阿达纳(aggl.)11307102阿德亚曼省7572 km²62381182.38阿德亚曼1785383阿菲永卡拉希萨尔省14532 km²81241655.91阿菲永128.5164阿勒省11315 km²52874446.73阿勒79.7645阿马西亚省5731 km²36523163.73阿马西亚743936安卡拉省25615 km²4007860156.47安卡拉32033627安塔利亚省20599 km²171975183.49安塔利亚6031908阿尔特温省7493 km²19193425.62阿尔特温231579艾登省7922 km²950757120.01艾登14226710巴勒克埃西尔省14442 km²107634774.53巴勒克埃西尔21543611比莱吉克省4181 km²19432646.48比莱吉克3410512宾格尔省8402 km²25373930.20宾格尔6887613比特利斯省8413 km²38867846.20比特利斯4492314博卢省10716 km²27065425.26博卢8456515布尔杜尔省7238 km²25680335.48布尔杜尔6336316布尔萨省11087 km²2125140191.68布尔萨(aggl.)119468717恰纳卡莱省9887 km²46497547.03恰纳卡莱7581018昌克勒省8411 km²27035532.14昌克勒6250819乔鲁姆省12833 km²59706546.53乔鲁姆16132120代尼兹利省11716 km²85002972.55代尼兹利27548021迪亚巴克尔省15162 km²136270889.88迪亚巴克尔54598322埃迪尔内省6241 km²40260664.51埃迪尔内11929823埃拉泽省9181 km²56961662.04埃拉泽26649524埃尔津詹省11974 km²31684126.46埃尔津詹10717525埃尔祖鲁姆省24741 km²93738937.89埃尔祖鲁姆36123526埃斯基谢希尔省13904 km²70600950.78埃斯基谢希尔48279327加济安泰普省7194 km²1285249178.66加济安泰普(aggl.)85351328吉雷松省7151 km²52381973.25吉雷松8363629居米什哈内省6125 km²18695330.52居米什哈内3027030哈卡里省7729 km²23658130.61哈卡里5814531哈塔伊省5678 km²1253726220.80安塔基亚14491032伊斯帕尔塔省8733 km²51368158.82伊斯帕尔塔14849633梅尔辛省15737 km²1651400104.94梅尔辛53784234伊斯坦布尔省5170 km²100187351,937.86伊斯坦布尔(aggl.)880346835伊兹密尔省11811 km²3370866285.40伊兹密尔(aggl.)223226536卡尔斯省9594 km²32501633.88卡尔斯7847337卡斯塔莫努省13473 km²37547627.87卡斯塔莫努6460638开塞利省17116 km²106043261.96开塞利(aggl.)53639239克尔克拉雷利省6056 km²32846154.24克尔克拉雷利5322140克尔谢希尔省6434 km²25323939.36克尔谢希尔8810541科贾埃利省3635 km²1206085331.80伊兹米特19569942科尼亚省40824 km²219216653.70科尼亚(aggl.)74269043屈塔希亚省12119 km²65690354.20屈塔希亚16666544马拉蒂亚省12235 km²85365869.77马拉蒂亚38108145马尼萨省13120 km²126016996.05马尼萨21434546卡赫拉曼马拉什省14213 km²100238470.53卡赫拉曼马拉什32619847马尔丁省9097 km²70509877.51马尔丁6507248穆拉省12716 km²71532856.25穆拉4384549穆什省8023 km²45365456.54穆什6792750内夫谢希尔省5438 km²30991456.99内夫谢希尔6786451尼代省7318 km²34808147.57尼代7808852奥尔杜省5894 km²887765150.62奥尔杜11252553里泽省3792 km²36593896.50里泽7814454萨卡里亚省4895 km²756168154.48阿达帕扎勒28375255萨姆松省9474 km²1209137127.63萨姆松36318056锡尔特省5465 km²26367648.25锡尔特9828157锡诺普省5858 km²22557438.51锡诺普3050258锡瓦斯省28129 km²75509126.84锡瓦斯25177659泰基尔达省6345 km²62359198.28泰基尔达10719160托卡特省9912 km²82802783.54托卡特11310061特拉布宗省4495 km²975137216.94特拉布宗21494962通杰利省7406 km²9358412.64通杰利2504163尚勒乌尔法省19091 km²144342275.61尚勒乌尔法38558864乌沙克省5174 km²32231362.29乌沙克13700165凡城省20927 km²87752441.93凡城28446466约兹加特省14083 km²68291948.49约兹加特7393067宗古尔达克省3470 km²615599177.41宗古尔达克10427668阿克萨赖省8051 km²39608449.20阿克萨赖12994969巴伊布尔特省4043 km²9735824.08巴伊布尔特3228570卡拉曼省8816 km²24321027.59卡拉曼10538471克勒克卡莱省4589 km²38350883.57克勒克卡莱20507872巴特曼省4671 km²45673497.78巴特曼24667873舍尔纳克省7296 km²35319748.41舍尔纳克5274374巴尔滕省1960 km²18417893.97巴尔滕3599275阿尔达汉省5495 km²13375624.34阿尔达汉1727476厄德尔省3584 km²16863447.05厄德尔5988077亚洛瓦省403 km²168593418.34亚洛瓦7011878卡拉比克省2864 km²22510278.60卡拉比克10074979基利斯省1239 km²11472492.59基利斯7067080奥斯曼尼耶省3189 km²458782143.86奥斯曼尼耶17397781迪兹杰省1065 km²314266295.09迪兹杰56649 [2]首都土耳其首都安卡拉(Ankara),人口584.6万(2023年2月),年最高气温30℃,最低气温-6℃。 [1] [33]国家象征播报编辑国名土耳其共和国(2022年联合国批准土耳其将外文国名由Turkey更改为Türkiye [21])。“土耳其”一词由“突厥”演变而来。在鞑靼语中,“突厥”是“勇敢”的意思,“土耳其”意即“勇敢人的国家”。据土耳其阿纳多卢通讯社2022年6月1日,应土耳其的要求,联合国将土耳其的外语国名从“Turkey”改成“Türkiye”。 [14]国旗土耳其国旗土耳其国旗呈长方形,长与宽之比为3:2。旗面为红色,靠旗杆一侧有一弯白色新月和一颗白色五角星。红色象征鲜血和胜利;新月和星象征驱走黑暗、迎来光明,还标志着土耳其人民对伊斯兰教的信仰,也象征幸福和吉祥。国徽土耳其国徽(非官方)土耳其没有官方的国徽,由一个有很多政府机构使用的标志所代替。国歌《独立进行曲》,泽基·雍戈尔曲,穆罕默德·阿基夫·艾尔索伊词歌词:要无畏,别气馁,深红旗帜颜色不褪。这是最后的炉火为国家化成灰,我们确知它不白费,这是我国的明星永放光辉,这是我国的明星是我宝贝。别皱眉,新月美,为你死我做好准备。英雄国家快露笑脸让愤怒消退,免为你流血如受罪。自由是我国家的权利正轨,自由属我们信神寻真所归。国花郁金香(土耳其的国花)郁金香。郁金香在植物分类学上,是一类属于百合科郁金香属(学名:Tulipa)的具球茎草本植物,原产地从南欧、西亚一直到东亚的中国东北一带,为人熟知的外销大国荷兰初次引进郁金香是在16世纪末,因生长地区纬度不同而花期各异,普遍在3月下旬至5月上旬。人口民族播报编辑人口据土耳其统计局发布的数据,截至2020年底,土耳其人口为8361万,较2019年增加45.93万人,年人口增长率从2019年的13.9‰降至2020年的5.5‰。其中男性人口占50.1%,女性人口占49.9%;城镇人口占93%,农村人口占7%。处于15-64岁劳动年龄之间的人口占67.7%, 0-14岁之间的人口占22.8%,65岁以上的人口占9.5%。土耳其人口最多的5个省(包括常住外国人)分别为:伊斯坦布尔省,人口1546万,占全国人口的18.49%;安卡拉省人口566万;伊兹密尔省439万;布尔萨省人口310万;安塔利亚省人口254万。 [17]截至2022年12月,人口8527万。 [1]民族土耳其80%为土耳其族,15%为库尔德族(主要分布在东部及东南部),另有阿拉伯、亚美尼亚和希腊等少数民族。 [17]政治播报编辑政体土建国后长期实行议会制。2002年,埃尔多安领导的正义与发展党(以下简称“正发党”)在议会选举中获胜,埃出任总理并连续执政。2014年,埃当选第十二任总统并辞去正发党主席职务。2016年7月15日,土发生未遂军事政变,后迅速被土政府挫败,土社会基本恢复稳定。2017年4月16日,土耳其通过改行总统制的修宪公投。2017年5月21日,正发党召开特别大会,埃尔多安总统重新当选党主席。2018年6月24日,土同时进行总统选举和议会选举。埃尔多安赢得52.59%的选票,成功连任总统。正发党与民族行动党组成的“人民联盟”赢得53.66%的选票,占据议会多数。7月9日,埃尔多安总统举行就职典礼,任命副总统和政府各部部长,土正式实行总统制新政体。 [1]当地时间2023年6月1日,土耳其最高选举委员会发布总统选举第二轮最终结果,正式宣布埃尔多安以52.18%选票赢得总统选举。 [25]宪法土耳其立法体系效仿欧洲模式。现行宪法于1982年11月7日生效,是该国第三部宪法。宪法规定:土耳其为民族、民主、政教分离和实行法制的国家。 [17]议会全称为土耳其大国民议会,是土最高立法机构。共设600个议席,议员根据各省人口比例经选举产生,任期5年。实行普遍直接选举制,18岁以上公民享有选举权和被选举权。只有超过全国选票7%的政党或政党联盟才可拥有议会席位。本届议会于2023年6月产生,是土第28届议会。 [17]政府又称部长会议。2023年6月,埃尔多安总统再次当选后组建新一届政府,为土第67届政府。共有17个部门,包括外交部、内政部、司法部、国防部、教育部等。 [1]政党土耳其自1945年实行多党制以来,国内政党林立,主要政党有:政党介绍正义与发展党议会第一大党。2001年8月14日成立,是具有温和伊斯兰宗教背景的右翼政党,总部设在安卡拉。现任主席雷杰普·塔伊普·埃尔多安。共和人民党反对党,议会第二大党。由共和国缔造者凯末尔·阿塔图尔克于1923年9月9日创建。现任主席凯末尔·科勒驰达奥卢。人民民主党反对党,议会第三大党。2012年成立,总部设在安卡拉。主要代表库尔德族利益。现任联合主席是米特哈特·桑贾尔和佩尔文·布尔丹。民族行动党议会第四大党。在2018年6月议会选举中同正义与发展党联合参选。1958年由共和民族党和土耳其农民党合并而成,属民族主义极右政党。现任主席代弗莱特·巴赫切利。美好党反对党,议会第五大党。2017年由退出民族行动党的部分反对派成员成立。现任主席梅拉尔·阿克谢奈尔。备注:其他政党还有:民主左翼党、民主党、自由团结党、大团结党、爱国党、青年党等。 [17-18]司法土耳其中央一级的法院有宪法法院、上诉法院、行政事务法院、司法分歧法院、审计法院等。其中宪法法院具有完全独立的司法权力,可以推翻不符合宪法的议会决议。 [17]政要雷杰普·塔伊普·埃尔多安总统雷杰普·塔伊普·埃尔多安。1954年生于伊斯坦布尔,毕业于马尔马拉大学经贸学院。曾任美德党伊斯坦布尔党部主席。1994年3月当选伊斯坦布尔市市长。2001年8月,埃与美德党主张革新的少壮派共同创建正义与发展党并任主席。2002年11月,正义与发展党赢得土议会选举。2003年3月9日,埃参加地方议会补选并当选议员,同月11日,塞泽尔总统任命埃为总理并授权组阁。2007年7月,正发党再次赢得大选,埃连任总理。2011年6月,正发党连续第三次赢得大选,埃连任总理。2014年当选土耳其总统 [3]。2018年再次当选土耳其总统 [4]。2023年5月,在总统选举投票中获胜 [23]。已婚,有二子二女。福阿特·奥克塔伊:副总统。1964年生于约兹加特。毕业于屈库奥瓦大学管理学专业,在底特律韦恩州立大学获制造工程和管理学硕士及产业工程学博士学位。航空和汽车领域专家,先后在福特、通用、克莱斯勒等多家企业任职。2008年至2012年,任土耳其航空公司主管战略规划和事业发展事务的副总经理。2012年至2016年任总理府灾害应急管理署署长。2016年至2018年任总理府办公厅主任,兼任土耳其航空公司董事会成员、土耳其电信公司董事会副主席。2018年7月出任副总统。已婚,有三个子女,懂英语。杰夫代特·耶尔马兹:副总统。 [26]穆斯塔法·申托普:议长。1968年生于泰基尔达省。本科毕业于伊斯坦布尔大学法学院,硕士和博士毕业于马尔马拉大学公共法专业,先后任马尔马拉大学研究员、副教授、教授等职。2012年至2015年任正发党副主席,2018年7月至2019年2月任土大国民议会副议长。系第24、25、26、27届大国民议会议员,第26届大国民议会宪法委员会主席。2019年2月,当选土大国民议会议长。2020年7月7日,土大国民议会举行下半程议长选举,申托普再次当选,任期至2023年7月。已婚,有四个子女。精通英语、阿拉伯语。哈坎·菲丹: 外长。 [26]经济播报编辑土耳其上世纪80年代实行对外开放政策以来,土经济实现跨越式发展。2022年主要经济数据如下:国内生产总值9055亿美元人均国内生产总值10655美元国内生产总值增长率12.8%货币新土耳其里拉的纸币与硬币新土耳其里拉(New Turkish Lira)。新货币包括“1新土耳其里拉”、“2新土耳其里拉”、“5新土耳其里拉”、“10新土耳其里拉”、“20新土耳其里拉”、“50新土耳其里拉”和“100新土耳其里拉”纸币。新币正面均印有土耳其国父穆斯塔法·凯末尔·阿塔图尔克的肖像,背面画像各不相同,颜色也不一样。土耳其还将发行1、2、5、10、25、50小货币单位的“库鲁什”硬币。2003年土耳其货币币值一度贬到每170万里拉兑换1美元,但现任政府上台后重整市场,近两年来经济略见改善,里拉币值也一路缓慢回升,到25日外汇市场收盘价为147.8万土耳其里拉兑换1美元。 [5]农业农业基础好,主要农产品有烟草、棉花、稻谷、橄榄、甜菜、甘橘、牲畜等。粮棉果蔬肉等主要农副产品基本实现自给自足,粮食自给率98.8%。近年来,农业机械化程度提高,机耕面积不断扩大。木材加工业发达。森林面积22万平方公里。土耳其农业从业人数超过该国劳动力人口的五分之一,收入占国家GDP的6.4%。作为农业部门2023年产业目标的一部分,土耳其致力成为全球五大生产国之一。 [17]工业土耳其建筑工业基础较好,主要有食品加工、纺织、汽车、采矿、钢铁、石油、建筑、木材和造纸等产业。土耳其纺织和服装业的技术水平居世界领先地位。地毯、家纺家居产品、皮革制品、T恤衫和套头衫是土耳其纺织和服装业最独具特色也是最重要的产品门类。纺织和服装业在土耳其经济中具有举足轻重的地位。土耳其是世界第8大纺织和服装出口国。2020年土耳其纺织和服装出口额为171亿美元,同比下降3.1%。土耳其是世界第15大汽车制造国。在土耳其政府大量引进整车制造和本地化生产政策的双重推动下,大批国外汽车生产商如菲亚特、雷诺、奔驰、福特、丰田和现代等在土耳其设立工厂,或与土耳其零部件厂进行技术合作。外资车企带来了先进的技术和管理经验,有效地促进了土耳其汽车零部件工业整体水平的提高。由于发展迅猛,汽车业正在逐步取代纺织业成为土耳其新的龙头产业。根据土耳其汽车制造商协会(OSD)统计数据,目前,土耳其共有14家大型汽车生产商,创造了近5.01万个就业岗位。土耳其汽车普及率(每1000人281辆)远远落后于欧洲平均数量(602辆),较低的汽车拥有率有助于在未来几年推动汽车销售。土耳其钢铁业起步于20世纪30年代,与其工业同步发展。进入21世纪以来,土耳其钢铁产量增长较为迅速。土耳其已成为世界第8大和欧洲地区第2大钢铁生产国,拥有26座电炉钢铁厂、8座感应炉钢铁厂和3座氧气转炉钢铁厂,年均粗钢产能达到5200万吨。2020年,土耳其钢铁产量为3580万吨,同比增长6.1%。土耳其是全球主要的建材生产国和出口国之一,主要产品包括建筑钢材、水泥、陶瓷和玻璃制品。2020年,土耳其建材出口总额为211.6亿美元,出口市场遍布全球200多个国家和地区。土耳其化工产业现代科技含量高,产品种类丰富,是土耳其工业体系的重要组成部门。土耳其拥有6.2万家化工企业,从业人数20万人,主要产品包括石油化工产品、无机和有机化工产品、化肥、涂料、药品、肥皂和清洁剂、合成纤维、精油、化妆品和个人护理用品。土耳其是世界第7大和欧洲地区第2大塑料生产国,也是欧洲地区第5大涂料生产国。此外,土耳其拥有中东地区最大的碱厂,产能可达75万吨/年。机械制造是土耳其经济主要增长动力之一,该行业对其较大规模制造业的发展发挥了至关重要的作用。机械制造业是土耳其吸引外国直接投资的重要领域。土耳其机械制造业以研发密集著称,土耳其每年工程师毕业生超过45万人,机械制造研发支出约占土耳其总研发支出的10%。该行业出口/进口比率为52%,本地采购约占各生产水平输入的85%。2019年土耳其机械行业出口额达到171亿美元。土耳其为全球第5大船舶制造国,拥有83座造船厂,造船产能451万载重吨,修船2250万载重吨,具备建造18万吨级船舶的能力。船舶制造和维修产业每年可为土耳其经济带来30亿美元收入,创造2万余个就业岗位。主要产品包括:石油运输船、化学品运输船、货柜船、散货船、普通货船、拖船、驳船、游艇、渔船、快艇和军用船舶。 [17]旅游业土耳其旅游资源极其丰富,古希腊、东罗马、奥斯曼三大历史遗迹在此汇聚,黑海、马尔马拉海、爱琴海、地中海四个美丽海洋将此环绕。主要旅游城市有伊斯坦布尔、伊兹密尔、安塔利亚、布尔萨、科尼亚、博徳鲁姆等,主要风景名胜有特洛伊、埃菲斯等古城遗址和棉花堡、卡帕多奇亚喀斯特地貌区等。旅游业是土耳其外汇收入重要来源之一。2022年外国游客总数达4456.4万人次,旅游收入462.8亿美元。 [1]德国、俄罗斯和英国是土耳其最重要的外国游客来源地。近两年,受暴恐袭击频繁发生、俄罗斯遭遇经济危机和土俄两国关系恶化等影响,土耳其旅游产业遭受了严重冲击。根据土耳其文化和旅游部发布的数据,2020年,赴土耳其旅游的外国游客数量为1582.6万人次,同比下降69.5%。土耳其旅游业实现收入120亿美元,同比增长65%。根据土耳其政府发布的“2023愿景”,土耳其有望到2023年实现年接待外国游客5000万人次,旅游收入500亿美元。 [17]金融土耳其银行业发达,约有50多家银行。主要的本地商业银行有实业银行(IS BANK)、担保银行(GarantiBankasi)、进出口银行、阿克银行(Akbank)银行等。2020年,土耳其共有63家保险公司。2019年9月28日,土耳其国库和财政部宣布成立土耳其再保险股份有限公司,吸收合并土耳其农业保险、土耳其人民保险、土耳其太阳保险、土耳其农业私人养老金等公司,成为土耳其最大的保险公司。此外,占有较大市场份额的保险公司还包括Axa、Anadolu、Ak、Alliance、YapıKredi等,其中大多数含有外资成分。土耳其证券市场的起源可以追溯到19世纪50年代,最初主要用于债券交易。1985年伊斯坦布尔证券交易所(ISE)正式挂牌成立,并逐步发展为世界5大证券交易所之一。2013年4月3日,伊斯坦布尔交易所(BIST)成立,它整合了ISE、伊斯坦布尔黄金交易所和土耳其衍生产品交易所,是目前土耳其仅有的证券交易所。外国基金进入土耳其投资股市免收增值税和所得税等。该交易所运作机制和结构完全符合欧盟标准,为外国投资者提供一个服务优惠、交易自由、信息共享透明的环境。2013年,BIST与美国纳斯达克证券交易所签署战略联盟协议,相互持股。2018年9月26日,纳斯达克从BIST退股后,持股比例清零,土耳其主权基金持股比例增至80.6%。 [17]对外贸易土耳其(17张)随着国民经济的快速发展,对外贸易总值和数量不断增加。主要进口商品为原油、天然气、化工产品、机械设备、钢铁等,主要出口产品是农产品、食品、纺织品、服装、金属产品、车辆及零配件等。近年来,钢铁、汽车、家电及机械产品等逐步进入国际市场。2022年土耳其进出口总额为6186亿美元,比上年同期增长24.6%。其中,出口额2542亿美元,同期增长12.9%;进口额3644亿美元,同期增长34.3%。贸易逆差1102亿美元,同期上涨139%。 [17]双向投资据土耳其中央银行统计,2020年土耳其吸收外资56.75亿美元,为2005年来最低水平。主要外资来源国包括美国、意大利、荷兰、英国、卢森堡、卡塔尔和德国等。 [17]外国援助土耳其收容400多万名来自叙利亚及中东国家的难民,就难民安置问题,土耳其与欧盟就难民问题达成60亿欧元援助协议,援助资金用于改善难民的基本需求、提供医疗保健、保护、市政基础设施、职业技术教育和培训、就业以及资助私营公司、中小企业和企业家。根据经济合作与发展组织(OECD)的数据,土耳其是发展中国家中接受外国援助最多的国家之一,仅次于印度。2017年收到来自发展援助委员会(DAC)成员国多达41亿美元的援助。 [17]文化播报编辑语言土耳其官方语言为土耳其语,少数民族同时使用库尔德语、阿拉伯语、亚美尼亚语和希腊语等。流行的主要外国语包括英语、法语、德语、西班牙语。 [17]宗教土耳其绝大部分居民信仰伊斯兰教,其中85%属逊尼派,其余为什叶派;其余的人信仰东正教、天主教、犹太教等。 [17]文学奥斯曼时期,诗歌是主要的文学体裁,主要采用安纳托利亚方言或奥斯曼土耳其语,主要题材是美丽和浪漫。奥斯曼宫廷文学深受波斯文化影响,文学语言是阿拉伯语、波斯语和土耳其语的混合。与烦琐的宫廷文学不同,土耳其的行吟诗人创作的民间文学曾以简明的土耳其语来赞美自然、爱情和真主。进入二十世纪,土耳其文学语言趋于简化,题材则更多偏重政治和社会民生。政治上颇有争议的伟大诗人纳齐姆·希克梅特在俄罗斯诗人马雅可夫斯基的影响下在三十年代进行了自由诗的创作。今天,亚沙尔.凯末尔以其对土耳其生活逼真、生动的描述成为公认的土耳其流行小说大家。土耳其青年作家们往往超越普通的社会问题,试图对女权、东西对立等问题加以探讨,这种探讨一直深受土耳其知识分子的欢迎。音乐土耳其古典音乐和土耳其民间音乐吸取灵感是土耳其作曲家灵感的源泉。土耳其在欧洲歌唱大赛(eurovision)上表现优异。1975年土耳其第一次参赛,2003年获得冠军,2008年的贝尔格莱德大奖赛上,土耳其队在四十三个参赛国家中进入前十,2009年,土耳其派出了Hadise进行比赛,最终她不负众望,获得第四名。戏剧电影伊斯坦布尔苏丹艾哈迈德清真寺土耳其戏剧发轫于卡拉戈兹皮影戏,这是一种风格介于英国传统滑稽木偶剧番趣和朱迪以及美国打闹喜剧明星劳雷尔和哈迪之间的传统表演艺术。此后,土耳其戏剧一直沿着以说功见长的传统发展,演出一般选择咖啡馆、公园等公共场合,演员一律为男性。土耳其今天的艺术舞台非常活跃,既有专业水准极高的戏剧、歌剧和芭蕾团体,也有非常繁荣的电影制作业,每年举办多个艺术节,其中最有名的是伊斯坦布尔国际艺术节。节日节日时间元旦1月1日国家主权日4月23日国父纪念日5月19日战胜纪念日8月30日共和国纪念日(独立日)10月29日开斋节10月1日(伊斯兰历)古尔邦节12月10日(伊斯兰历)习俗土耳其宗教气氛相对宽松,与其他西亚地区伊斯兰国家迥异,在男女握手、饮酒等方面无特殊禁忌,但禁食猪肉。土耳其社会风气比较多元、开放,由于地理位置、历史渊源、申请加入欧盟等原因,当地人习惯将自己视为欧洲人而非亚洲人。服饰也是西式服装与伊斯兰教传统服装交杂,大多数人特别是受过高等教育的人和年轻人穿西式服装,大多数女士不系头巾、不着罩袍。在商务活动场合宜穿正装西服,女性忌穿无袖服装。 [17]军事播报编辑综述1921年,凯末尔创建国民军。1952年,土加入北约。土武装部队包括陆军、海军(包括海军航空兵和海军陆战队)、空军、海岸警卫队和宪兵。总统是武装部队最高统帅。最高军事委员会是武装部队内部事务最高决策机构。总参谋部是武装部队的最高作战指挥机构。国家安全委员会是最高国防决策机构。国防部是同总参谋部进行合作的最高行政机构。实行义务兵役制,1987年以来实施有偿免除兵役制度。实行军队职业化措施,精减指挥机关人员,技术军人文职化,实行军官和技术军人合同制等。2018年8月起,土开始实行有偿免除兵役制度,1994年1月1日前出生者可通过缴纳1.5万里拉免除兵役,仅需接受21天基础培训。实行军队职业化措施,精减指挥机关人员,技术军人文职化,实行军官和技术军人合同制等。土耳其是北约成员国,现役正规军总兵力35.5万。美国在土设有23个军事基地和设施。北约在土设有东南欧盟军司令部和战术空军司令部。国防包括陆军、海军(包括海军航空兵和海军步兵)、空军。宪兵和海岸警卫队平时受内务部指挥,但战时他们服从陆军和海军的指挥,在此期间,他们同时有内部军事法庭和军事职能。土耳其军队是北约第二大常设部队,仅次于美国军队,有五个分支超过一百万的军警人员的综合实力。土耳其被认为是中东地区最强的军事力量(不包括以色列)。土耳其国民军1921年1月凯末尔创建“国民军”。1952年加入北约。实行军队职业化措施,压编指挥机关人员,技术军人文职化,实行军官和技术军人合同制等。国防体制:总统为武装力量统帅。总统通过国防部和总参谋部对全国武装力量实施领导和指挥。国家安全委员会为最高国防决策机构,由总统任主席。武装力量的最高决策机构为最高军事委员会,由总理、总参谋长和陆、海、空军司令以及宪兵司令组成。国防部是最高军事行政机构。总参谋部为最高军事指挥机构。武装力量由正规军、预备役和准军事部队组成。正规军分陆、海、空3个军种。兵役制度:实行义务兵役制,士兵服役期18个月。土耳其士兵军衔:军官分3等11级:将官4级(上将、中将、少将、准将),校官3级(上校、中校、少校),尉官4级(上尉、中尉、少尉、准尉)。 [1]军力土耳其军队总兵力:土现役正规军总兵力35.5万。陆军:52.5万人。编有4个集团司令部,9个军司令部、1个机械化师、1个步兵师、14个装甲旅、17个机械化旅、9个步兵旅、4个突击旅、1个步兵团、1个总统警卫团、5个边防团、26个边防营。海军:5.1万人(含海军陆战队3100人)。主要编成为:海军司令部(驻安卡拉);舰队司令部(驻格尔居克);东北地中海司令部(驻安卡拉);北部地区和博斯普鲁斯海峡司令部(伊斯坦布尔);南部地区和爱琴海司令部(伊兹密尔);黑海司令部(埃雷斯);地中海司令部(梅尔辛);1个海军陆战团,3100人。空军:6.3万人。编有2个战术空军司令部、1个运输司令部、1个训练司令部、1个后勤司令部、11个攻击战斗机队、7个战斗机中队、2个侦察机中队。作战飞机440架。驻外兵力:驻塞浦路斯1个军,约3.3万人。装备有坦克282辆、装甲输送车250辆、牵引火炮170门、自行火炮26门、迫击炮307门、高射炮84门、飞机3架、直升机4架。参加联合国维持和平行动的兵力:在波斯尼亚驻有约1300人,在伊拉克和科威特驻有7人(军事观察员),在意大利驻有18架F—16C型战斗机。外国驻军:驻有北约盟军东南欧陆军司令部和第6战术空军司令部。英国空军约230人,飞机7架(“旋风”6架、VC—10型1架)。美军1442人,其他陆军22人、海军20人、空军1400人,编有1个飞行联队,机型包括F—16、F—15C、KC—135、E—3B和E—3C、C—12、HC—130、HH—60。军队节日:建军节8月30日交通播报编辑空运土耳其现有56个民用机场,其中24个向国际航班开放。土耳其航空公司是欧洲发展最快的航空公司之一,其运输量和运输能力增长在欧洲都名列前茅。截至2020年,土耳其航空公司航班目的地290个,包括50个土耳其国内和241个遍布全球其他127个国家和地区的目的地,位居全球各航空公司之首。2011-2017年,土耳其航空公司连续被评为“欧洲最佳航空公司”(Skytrax世界航空公司奖)。据土耳其航空管理总局统计,2020年搭乘土耳其各家航空公司的国内旅客数量同比减少50.3%,降至4962.1万人次;国际旅客数量同比减少71%,降至3198.6万人次。国内航班的数量为57.52万班次;国际航班数为28.05万班次。 [17]航运土耳其北、西、南三面环海,即黑海、马尔马拉海、爱琴海和地中海,还有达达尼尔海峡和博斯普鲁斯海峡,海岸线长达7200公里,这使其海上运输颇具竞争优势。 [17]铁路截至2020年底,土耳其全境铁路总长1.3万公里,其中高铁1213公里。铁路总客运量4480万人次,货运量3000万吨。目前,土耳其90%的铁路线属于单行线,75%的铁路线属于非电力和无信号线。其中,30%的铁路线服务期超过27年,而且处于闲置状态,维护和更新严重不足。土耳其目前旅客运输的3%、货物运输的5%是通过铁路进行的。2017年10月30日,土耳其同格鲁吉亚和阿塞拜疆联合兴建的卡尔斯—第比利斯—巴库铁路投入运营。该铁路总长度838公里。从土耳其出发的列车可以穿越格鲁吉亚和阿塞拜疆,到达中亚和中国,运输时间可缩短至12-15天。此外,位于博斯普鲁斯海峡口的马尔马拉海底铁路隧道于2014年10月29日通车,该隧道把欧、亚两洲的铁路连接起来。土耳其第一条高速铁路:安卡拉至伊斯坦布尔高铁一期(安卡拉至埃斯基谢希尔)于2009年3月13日通车,全长249公里,时速250公里/时,运行时间80分钟。第二条高铁:安卡拉至孔亚高铁于2011年8月23日通车,全长301公里,时速250公里/时,运行时间90分钟。 [17]公路土耳其在运输系统的投资集中于陆路运输。近年来,土耳其公路网络得到迅猛发展,截至2021年1月1日,公路总长达6.9万公里(其中高速公路总长达3523公里,国道高速公路总长达3.1万公里,省道公路总长达3.4万公里)。土耳其还发展了欧洲最大的公路运输车队之一。目前,95%的乘客和90%的货物都是通过公路来运输的。 [17]社会播报编辑科教土耳其独立纪念碑近年来,土耳其强调科技立国,研发(R&D)支出占国内生产总值(GDP)的比重逐年增加。2012年3月,土议会对义务教育制度进行改革,现行学制为小学4年,初中4年,高中4年。义务教育阶段共有各类学校近6万所。现有大学200余所。著名高等学府有安卡拉大学、哈杰泰普大学、中东技术大学、比尔肯特大学、伊斯坦布尔大学、海峡大学、爱琴海大学。 [17] [33]医疗土耳其实行全民免费医疗,每个城市都有一家国立医院,一般设在近郊 [29]。土耳其医疗卫生条件较好,各个城市均有健全的医院、诊所和急救设施,治疗方式以西医为主。医疗保险覆盖大部分城镇。享受医疗保险者在公立医院就医几乎免费,但预约时间较长。私立医院或诊所很多,但收费较高。2019年,土耳其医疗卫生支出达1652.3亿里拉,占GDP的比重为4.4%。2017-2019年土耳其人均寿命为81.3岁,女性寿命比男性长5.4岁。 [17]媒体阿纳多卢通讯社、安卡拉通讯社为土耳其最大通讯社,属半官方性质。经济新闻通讯社是非官方通讯社,主要面向银行界和实业界。土耳其共有各类电台71家,电视台97家。最大广播电视机构为土耳其广播电视组织(TRT,半官方机构),对内广播电台主要有安卡拉、伊斯坦布尔、伊兹密尔电台等;对外用16种语言广播。土耳其发行报纸2337种,其中全国性报纸172种;杂志3148种。《自由报》《国民报》和《晨报》为土耳其3大非官方报;《时报》和《共和国报》代表共和人民党立场;《喉舌报》和《土耳其报》具有原教旨主义和泛突厥主义色彩;发行量最大的英文报纸是《每日新闻》,其他英文报纸还有《商业时报》和《时代》等。土耳其网络媒体多为通讯社、广播电视和报刊的官方网站。其中,Haber7是最知名的土耳其本土新闻网站,主要报道国内、国际新闻,涵盖体育、经济、政治等多个方面。 [17]通讯土耳其邮政系统完善,各市(县)均有邮政局,服务内容包括国内外邮寄、快递、汇兑款、西联汇款、水电气和电话费等发票的代收业务、电报、各类电话卡销售,此外还开通了网上邮政业务。土耳其电话设施较发达,几乎村村通电话。目前固定电话服务业务主要由国家电信公司经营,移动通信服务商主要有3家,分别是Turkcell、TurkTelekom和Voldafone移动通信公司。截至2020年底,土耳其有固定电话1200万线、移动电话8280万部。土耳其互联网络较成熟,宽带上网较普遍。截至2019年底,互联网用户达到7740万户。2020年,土耳其宽带用户数量同比增加了7.5%,达到8230万户。其中,固定宽带用户为 1680万户,移动宽带用户为 6560万户。这一增长的主要贡献来自光纤互联网新增用户数量同比增长24.7%和有线互联网新增用户数量同比增长19.7%。截至2020年末,土耳其固定电话的用户线数量为1244.8万户,有线固定电话的交换机容量为1539.7万户,公用电话数量为49861万户;移动电话用户总数为8212.81万户,其中2G用户数为193.7万户,3G+4.5G用户数为8019.04万户;宽带互联网用户总数为8236.4万户,其中固定互联网宽带接入用户总数为1673.4万户(包括光纤宽带接入用户数量为400.5万户,数字用户线 (xDSL)接入用户数量为1103.6万户,基于有线电视网络的互联网宽带接入用户数量为129.8万户,其他互联网宽带接入用户总数为39.43万户);移动互联网宽带接入用户总数为6562.9万户,其中包括移动电脑互联网宽带接入用户总数为49.03万户,手机互联网宽带接入用户总数为6513.9万户;有线电视用户总数为138.3万户;光缆线路总长度42.49万公里。 [17]电力截至2019年底,土耳其共有9402座发电厂(含无许可证电厂)。总装机容量达到为9.58万MW。其中,天然气发电占27%,水电占32.3%,火电占23.5%,风电占9%。2020年,土耳其发电量达3050亿千瓦时,耗电量为2908亿千瓦时,较上年增加0.14%。 [17]外交播报编辑外交政策土耳其注重发展同美国及欧洲关系,总体遵循睦邻发展方向,积极介入、斡旋地区事务,同时重视发展同包括中国、日本、韩国在内的亚太及中亚、巴尔干、非洲和拉美国家关系,注重外交多元化。土耳其是北约、二十国集团、伊斯兰合作组织、亚洲相互协作与信任措施会议、欧洲安全与合作组织、发展中国家8国集团、黑海经济合作组织、东南欧合作进程、突厥语国家组织等国际和地区组织成员,上海合作组织、东南亚国家联盟等组织对话伙伴国。 [1] [6] [33]对外关系与北约的关系北约成员国。1953年土耳其加入北约组织,成为美欧的盟友。 [7]与欧盟的关系欧盟候选国。1959年,土耳其向欧洲经济共同体提出了联系国申请,1963年9月土耳其便与欧共体签署了《安卡拉协议》,成为欧共体的联系国。20世纪60年代至80年代初,土耳其国内政局动荡,发生了数次军事政变。欧共体以土耳其国内政局不稳、与周边国家关系不睦为由拒绝其加入该组织。20世纪80年代末90年代初,苏联东欧集团解体后,土耳其作为对抗苏联前哨的作用在西方外交战略中的权重下降,加上此时的中东欧国家“回归欧洲”进程加快,土耳其入盟诉求在某种程度上被忽视了。面对中东欧国家入盟带来的冲击,土耳其转而采取先争取与欧盟缔结关税同盟的策略,1996年双方缔结了关税同盟。土耳其本想以缔结关税同盟为基础再进一步推进入盟战略,但1997年欧盟卢森堡峰会虽然宣布土耳其有资格成为欧盟成员国,但却提出土要解决人权、尊重少数民族、解决塞浦路斯问题和妥善处理与希腊关系等一系列条件,令土耳其大失所望。1999年12月,在美国的积极推动下,欧盟赫尔辛基峰会确定土耳其为欧盟候选国,但仍以土耳其在政治、人权和法治等方面不符合欧盟标准为由,拒绝启动与土耳其的入盟谈判。2005年,双方正式开启入盟谈判。不幸的是,土耳其又赶上了“欧盟疲乏症”影响,加上2006年因与塞浦路斯纠纷,欧盟干脆终止与土耳其继续进行谈判。其间经历多次反复后,2013年11月,欧盟与土耳其再次展开入盟谈判。2014年年初,土耳其与欧盟高层互访频繁,1月21日,土耳其总理埃尔多安造访欧盟。1月27至28日,法国总统奥朗德访问土耳其。高层互访让土耳其重燃入盟的希望之火。 [7]2016年3月,欧盟与土耳其一度达成难民安置协议,被视为土耳其加速入欧的政治博弈成果,然而7月中旬土耳其发生未遂军事政变,更让其免签待遇生效和入欧谈判进程搁置,双方关系再次陷入僵局。 [8]与非洲的关系为保持经济增长和对经济转型的调控,土耳其与非洲的贸易额已经翻了一番多,由2003年的50亿美元增长至2007年的120亿美元。土耳其的目标是到2010年将这一贸易额增加至300亿美元。土耳其外贸部门公布的数据显示,截至2007年底,共有150家土耳其公司在23个非洲国家投资,直接投资总额已达到5亿美元,这一数字预计将进一步增长。土耳其加强了与肯尼亚的经济合作,使两国双边贸易额稳步增长,2007年达到9000万美元。根据现有的双边贸易协定,土耳其向肯尼亚出口许多种类的消费品,包括榛子、矿产、化肥、树脂、塑料袋和纺织品等。肯尼亚向土耳其出口的商品主要是茶叶、亚麻和工艺品。肯尼亚还从土耳其国际合作局主办的一系列技术合作项目中受益。在2007年5月土耳其以非本地区成员的身份加入非洲开发银行后,也进一步加快了与非洲合作的步伐。加入作为非洲开发和基础设施建设项目主要资助者之一的非洲开发银行,使土耳其获得了一个开拓全新合作领域的平台。土耳其已经打入了非洲的运输行业,其国家航空公司——土耳其航空公司已经开通了飞往亚的斯亚贝巴、喀土穆、拉各斯和约翰内斯堡等非洲地区航空枢纽的定期航线。土耳其还计划进入非洲的海运业,通过投资肯尼亚蒙巴萨等港口来推动与非洲内陆地区的贸易。此外,土耳其还通过国际合作局参与了在非洲多个国家的人道主义项目和开发项目。从土耳其援助中受益的国家包括苏丹、埃塞俄比亚和塞内加尔。土耳其国际合作局说,目前正在计划展开新的合作项目,范围涉及卫生、饮用水净化、教育、技术培训、环境保护和运输。土耳其政府成立了一个2000万美元的开发援助基金,专门用于支持最不发达国家、小岛国家和内陆发展中国家。此外,土耳其还希望从非洲获得政治支持作为回报。该国目前正在争取2009年至2010年的安理会非常任理事国席位。1961年,土耳其曾经担任过1年的安理会成员。与亚美尼亚的关系亚美尼亚与土耳其东部接壤,两国拥有330公里的共同边界。由于对所谓的“亚美尼亚大屠杀”有不同看法,土亚两国一直没有建立正常外交关系。亚美尼亚和土耳其伊斯兰盟友阿塞拜疆的领土争端也加深了土亚之间的罅隙,土耳其一直站在阿塞拜疆一边。由于阿塞拜疆和亚美尼亚就纳戈尔诺-卡拉巴赫地区主权归属僵持不下,土耳其从1993年开始关闭了与亚美尼亚的陆地边界,以示对阿塞拜疆的支持,对1991年才正式宣布独立的亚美尼亚实施贸易禁运。两国贸易主要通过格鲁吉亚进行,年贸易额达1亿美元。土亚在改善关系上面临逐渐上升的现实需求和国际压力。土亚数次释放关系解冻的信号。2008年7月,土耳其时任外长巴巴詹表达了土政府与亚美尼亚实现两国关系正常化的意愿。同年9月,土耳其总统居尔前往亚美尼亚首都埃里温观看两国足球队2010年南非世界杯预选赛的比赛,成为第一个访亚的土耳其国家元首。“亚美尼亚大屠杀”是指1915年至1917年土耳其奥斯曼帝国统治时期150万亚美尼亚人死亡的事件。土耳其历届政府均否认这是大屠杀事件。2023年3月24日,据德国新闻电视频道网站报道,亚美尼亚和土耳其准备30年来首次重新持续开放边界——不过暂时只针对第三国国民和外交官。 [22]与塞浦路斯的关系自从1960年,塞浦路斯摆脱英国统治而独立以来,塞浦路斯希腊族和土耳其族一直处在内战之中。希腊族人多于土耳其,比例为4:1或5:1。1974年8月16日,土耳其军队入侵塞浦路斯岛,塞浦路斯岛北端被3万土耳其部队控制,并成立了所谓的北塞浦路斯土耳其共和国(全世界只有土耳其承认她的合法性)。与中国的关系1971年8月4日,中国和土耳其建交。上世纪80年代以来,两国高层互访增多,双边关系发展较快。2010年,中土建立战略合作关系。2015年,两国建立政府间合作委员会机制,负责统筹协调双边政治、经贸、安全、人文等领域合作。2016年,该机制首次会议在土召开。两国高层交往频繁。中方访土:2015年11月,习近平主席赴土出席二十国集团安塔利亚峰会,会见土总统埃尔多安。2016年11月,汪洋副总理访土并同土副总理希姆谢克举行中土政府间合作委员会机制首次会议。2017年4月,刘延东副总理访土,会见土总统埃尔多安、总理耶尔德勒姆,并同土副总理图尔凯什举行会谈。2022年8月,全国人大常委会委员长栗战书同土耳其大国民议会议长申托普举行视频会晤。2023年6月,习近平主席特使、全国人大常委会副委员长丁仲礼赴土出席土当选总统埃尔多安就职仪式。2023年7月,中共中央政治局委员、中央外办主任王毅访问土耳其。此外,2018年7月,习近平主席出席金砖国家领导人第十次会晤期间,会见土总统埃尔多安;11月,习近平主席出席二十国集团领导人布宜诺斯艾利斯峰会期间,会见土总统埃尔多安。2019年6月,习近平主席在亚信杜尚别峰会期间,会见土总统埃尔多安。2020年4月和2021年7月,习近平主席两次同土总统埃尔多安通电话。2022年9月,习近平主席在出席上海合作组织成员国元首理事会第二十二次会议期间会见土总统埃尔多安总统。土方访华:2016年9月,土总统埃尔多安来华出席二十国集团领导人杭州峰会。2017年5月,土总统埃尔多安来华出席“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛,习主席同埃举行会谈;12月,土副总理希姆谢克访华,中共中央政治局常委、国务院副总理汪洋会见。2018年12月,土大国民议会议长耶尔德勒姆访华,国务院总理李克强、全国人大常委会委员长栗战书分别同其会见、会谈。2019年7月,土总统埃尔多安访华。两国经贸和大项目合作稳步发展。2022年,中土双边贸易额为385.5亿美元。2023年,中土双边商品贸易额434.0亿美元。 [20] [34]中国为土第二大贸易伙伴、第一大进口来源地和第十五大出口市场。双方在安卡拉-伊斯坦布尔高铁二期、盐湖地下天然气储库、卡赞天然碱综合开发、轨道系统车辆项目、胡努特鲁燃煤电站等项目上成功开展合作。 截至目前,中方在土建有4所孔子学院和2所孔子课堂。2018年,土在华举办旅游年。据土方统计,2019年中国赴土游客42.6万人次、同比增长8.18%。2020年,中国赴土游客3.79万人次。 [9] [20]与俄罗斯关系2015年11月28日,俄罗斯总统普京签署对土耳其实行制裁的总统令。根据总统令,旅游公司不得办理前往土耳其的旅游手续。总统令要求政府采取措施,禁止包机往来俄土航线,严格监督土耳其运输公司在俄境内的活动,监督港口,监督俄罗斯亚速海-黑海港口水域的运输安全,包括禁止土耳其船只在俄罗斯海港水域逗留和航行。从2016年1月1日起,除外交人员和家属以及具有临时居住证的人以外,土耳其公民暂时不得入境俄罗斯。与以色列关系2018年5月15日,土耳其外交部就加沙地带暴力冲突事件召见以色列驻安卡拉大使埃坦·纳艾并提出抗议,同时土耳其政府要求纳艾离开土耳其“一段时间”。2022年8月17日,以色列总理办公室发表声明说,经过以色列总理拉皮德与土耳其总统埃尔多安和外长恰武什奥卢的沟通,两国决定正式恢复外交关系,双方将重新互派大使和总领事。 [16]2023年7月20日,以色列和土耳其同时宣布,以色列总理本雅明·内塔尼亚胡定于28日对土耳其进行国事访问,会晤土耳其总统雷杰普·塔伊普·埃尔多安。 [30]与荷兰关系2018年7月20日,荷兰、土耳其政府发表联合声明,宣布两国决定恢复互派大使,实现外交关系正常化。 [10]与乌兹别克斯坦关系2022年3月29日,乌兹别克斯坦总统米尔济约耶夫在乌首都塔什干与到访的土耳其总统埃尔多安举行会谈。双方在此后发表联合声明表示,同意将两国关系提升为全面战略伙伴关系。 [13]与埃及关系2023年5月29日,埃及总统府发表声明说,埃及总统塞西与土耳其总统埃尔多安同意立即提升两国外交关系并互派大使。声明说,塞西当天同埃尔多安通电话,两国领导人同意加强双边合作。 [24]当地时间2023年7月4日,土耳其和埃及宣布两国外交关系提升至大使级。 [27-28]当地时间2024年2月14日,土耳其总统埃尔多安当日已经抵达埃及首都开罗,开启其正式访问行程。埃及总统塞西在机场迎接。这是埃尔多安12年来首次访问埃及。据土耳其媒体报道,在与塞西的会晤中,双方将讨论双边关系以及巴以局势等热点问题。 [35-36]当地时间2024年2月14日,埃及总统塞西同到访的土耳其总统埃尔多安签署了关于重组两国高级别战略合作委员会的联合声明。 [37]与希腊关系当地时间2023年12月7日,土耳其总统埃尔多安访问希腊,先后与希腊总统萨克拉罗普卢、希腊总理米佐塔基斯会面,并率土耳其政府代表团与希腊方面举行了高级别合作委员会会议。双方在会谈后签署了《雅典友好睦邻宣言》,同意改善两国关系,加强双边合作。 [31]与匈牙利关系当地时间2023年12月18日,土耳其总统埃尔多安对匈牙利进行访问,参加匈牙利-土耳其高级战略合作委员会会议。匈牙利总理欧尔班与埃尔多安在布达佩斯签署了一份关于匈牙利与土耳其优先战略合作的文件。 [32]与委内瑞拉关系当地时间2月24日,委内瑞拉外长希尔和土耳其外长菲丹在委内瑞拉首都加拉加斯发表联合声明,宣布两国政府承诺推动双边贸易额达到30亿美元。 [38]美食播报编辑土耳其(9张)土耳其菜在世界上是很有名的。尽管精心做出的料理看起来十分简单,但其新鲜材料所具有的鲜美味道是一般佳肴无法媲美的。料理的种类也非常多:有各种汤菜,有种类繁多的凉菜,以及各种肉料理和鱼料理。饭后,还有著名的土耳其点心和糕点等,最后是土耳其咖啡。烤全羊是土耳其人招待贵宾的特色菜。烤全羊就是把一只嫩羊羔去掉头脚和羊皮,掏空内脏,然后在空肚子里塞满大米饭在火上烤。米饭里面放了许多葡萄干、杏仁、松子等。烤熟的羊羔味道非常鲜美、羊肉又香又嫩。羊肚中的米饭就像中国的八宝饭,不过是咸味的。土耳其的酒类产品也是当地的特色之一,其中土耳其啤酒,当地生产的葡萄酒,还有土耳其独特的被称为拉克的酒(茴香酒)都堪称一流。旅游播报编辑概况土耳其风景土耳其是一个横跨欧亚大陆的伊斯兰教国家,被称为“文明的摇篮”。土耳其成功进入全世界十大旅游国家行列。穆斯塔法·凯末尔·阿塔土克于1923年10月29日建立了土耳其共和国。历史上的土耳其曾经是罗马帝国、拜占庭帝国、奥斯曼帝国的中心,有着6500年悠久历史和前后十三个不同文明的历史遗产,加上三面环海的地势和内陆复杂的地理环境使其拥有了极为丰富的旅游资源。土耳其同时也是一个现代化国家,有着一流的旅游服务设施。这里有热情好客的人民,灿烂的文化,迷人的景色和神秘的传说。当你来到土耳其西、南海岸时,举目所见尽是散布着古希腊、罗马文明,甚至基督教文明的遗迹,值得探访的城市实在不少。其中伊斯坦布尔、安卡拉、伊兹密尔是土耳其第一、二、三大城市。近年来,土耳其已成为欧洲的主要旅游观光地。夏季、冬季疗养地的开发在急速地进展,从世界各地来探求土耳其历史、文化、美丽自然的人们每年都在增加。从地中海的海水浴到乌鲁塔山的滑雪。土耳其人拥有可以提供给任何游客的各式各样的东西。伊斯坦布尔历史区土耳其共和国国土包括西亚的安纳托利亚半岛以及巴尔干半岛的东色雷斯地区,首都是位处安纳托利亚高原正中央的安卡拉。中央情报局将土耳其分类为发达国家,但经济学家及政治学家通常将土耳其认定为新兴工业化国家,然而美林证券、世界银行及经济学人杂志将其归类为新兴市场。土耳其拥有世界七大奇迹中的两个:阿尔忒弥斯神庙和毛瑟陆斯陵墓。卡帕多奇亚石林的仙女峰和石骆驼。阿耳忒弥斯神庙(Temple of Artemis)、哈利卡尔纳苏斯摩索拉斯王陵墓(Halicarnassos Mausoleum)、精灵烟囱(Fairy Chimneys)、托普卡匹皇宫(Topkapi Palace)、戈雷迈国家公园和卡帕多西亚石窟群(Goreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia)、艾菲索斯古城(Ephesus)。世界遗产伊斯坦布尔历史区,戈雷迈谷地和卡帕多西亚石窟区,迪夫里伊大清真寺和医院,哈图沙,内姆鲁特山,桑索斯和莱顿遗址,赫拉波利斯和斯帕姆科卡莱,桑美兰博卢城。卡帕多基亚石林的仙女峰和石骆驼。购物卡帕多基亚石林的仙女峰土耳其地毯中,真丝和纯手工地毯价格昂贵。此外,还有皮毛制品、金饰、银具、铜器、瓷器、刺绣产品、海泡石烟嘴等手工艺品。特别值得一提的是土耳其的羊剪绒皮衣,款式新颖,价格便宜。海泡石烟斗——海泡石是一种极轻质、吸收性极佳的稀有白色硬质黏土矿石。最优质、最适合用于烟斗制作的海泡石原料,产自伊斯坦布尔东南约200英里Eskisehir地区的地下400英尺深处。海泡石烟斗用久了,在烟油和手汗的内外共同作用下,会散发出自然、深邃和高贵的棕金色。恶魔眼,可以去凶避邪的各式大小恶魔眼,造型很多变,可以是项链,也可以是别针、钥匙圈、耳环等。是土耳其最好的旅游纪念品之一,送人自用两相宜。装饰瓷盘及彩蛋——挑选各色装饰瓷盘时有两项传统原则:1、蓝白是最受欢迎的色彩,还有一种称为伊兹尼红(Iznik Red)的,也是代表土耳其风格的色泽。2、由于伊斯兰教禁止崇拜偶像,所以穆斯林工匠都擅长处理花鸟图案,土耳其也不例外。特别是产于土耳其的郁金香和康乃馨花草纹饰,最普遍而漂亮。红茶托盘及红茶杯组——红茶店外送红茶的托盘是最受欢迎的纪念品,配一整套的杯、盘、汤匙,更是土耳其味十足,放在家中赏心悦目,而且有实用价值。到伊斯坦布尔Grand Bazaar买比较便宜,这里还可买到煮咖啡的铜壶、两段式的煮咖啡壶等。世界遗产播报编辑至2008年止,土耳其共有9处世界遗产,如下:1伊斯坦布尔历史区文化遗产伊斯坦布尔省2特洛伊考古遗址文化遗产恰纳卡莱省3赫拉波利斯和帕穆克卡莱文化遗产代尼兹利省4桑索斯和莱顿遗址文化遗产穆拉省5萨夫兰博卢城文化遗产宗古尔达克省6哈图沙文化遗产乔鲁姆省7格雷梅国家公园文化与自然双重遗产卡帕多西亚省8内姆鲁特山考古遗址文化遗产阿德亚曼省9迪夫斯大清真寺和医院文化遗产锡瓦斯省(表格数据资料来源于: [11])相关新闻播报编辑当地时间2022年12月28日,土耳其总统埃尔多安宣布取消该国退休年龄要求,此举使得约225万名符合条件的工人可立即退休。 [19]新手上路成长任务编辑入门编辑规则本人编辑我有疑问内容质疑在线客服官方贴吧意见反馈投诉建议举报不良信息未通过词条申诉投诉侵权信息封禁查询与解封©2024 Baidu 使用百度前必读 | 百科协议 | 隐私政策 | 百度百科合作平台 | 京ICP证030173号 京公网安备110000020000Turkey | Location, Geography, People, Economy, Culture, & History | Britannica
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Turkey
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Introduction & Quick FactsLandReliefThe northern folded zoneThe southern folded zoneThe central massifThe Arabian platformDrainageRiversLakesSoilsClimateOverviewClimatic regionsPlant and animal lifeVegetationFaunaPeopleEthnic groupsReligionSettlement patternsDemographic trendsEconomyResourcesAgricultureIndustryTradeTransportationGovernment and societyConstitutional frameworkJusticeLocal governmentPolitical processSecurityEducationHealth and welfareCultural lifeDaily lifeWorkDressReligious practiceCuisineSocial roles and kinshipMale and female rolesMarriage and family lifeSocial changeArts and mediaSports and recreationHistoryMustafa Kemal and the Turkish War of Independence, 1919–23The Fundamental Law and abolition of the sultanateDeclaration of the Turkish republicTurkey under Mustafa KemalGovernmentOppositionKemalist policiesTurkey after Kemal “Atatürk”World War II and the postwar era, 1938–50Turkey under the Democrats, 1950–60The economyPolitical repressionsThe military coup of 1960The National Unity CommitteeThe constitution of 1961The ascendancy of the right, 1961–71Political developments, 1970s to ’90sMilitary intervention and coalition governmentsThe 1980sThe 1982 constitutionThe Kurdish conflictThe 1990sRise of the AKP in the 21st centuryAKP challenges Kemalist, military entrenchmentAn emboldened Erdoğan and the AKP face resistanceAKP under pressure: failed coup attempt, crackdown on dissidents, and economic crisisForeign affairs since 1950Early Cold War: Western-oriented policy and membership in NATO and CTOLate Cold War: 1974 Cyprus crisis and balancing relations with the West and the Soviet UnionPost-Cold War: Neoliberalism, attempt to join the European Union, and the “zero problems” doctrineErdoğan era: Clash and cooperation with Russia in regional affairsTurkish involvement in the Arab Spring and the Syrian Civil WarTurkish intervention in the Libyan Civil War2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
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Also known as: Republic of Turkey, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti
Written by
Malcolm Edward Yapp
Emeritus Professor of the Modern History of Western Asia, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Author of The Near East Since the First World War and others.
Malcolm Edward Yapp,
John C. Dewdney
Emeritus Professor of Geography, University of Durham, England. Author of A Geography of the Soviet Union; Turkey; and others.
John C. DewdneySee All
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Category:
Geography & Travel
Also called:
Türkiye
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Head Of State And Government:
President: Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
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Capital:
Ankara
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Population:
(2024 est.) 86,187,000
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Currency Exchange Rate:
1 USD equals 30.761 Turkish lira
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Form Of Government:
multiparty republic with one legislative house (Grand National Assembly of Turkey [6001])
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TurkeyBodrum, Turkey: Castle of St. PeterThe Castle of St. Peter at Bodrum, Turkey, on the Aegean coast.(more)Turkey, country that occupies a unique geographic position, lying partly in Asia and partly in Europe. Throughout its history it has acted as both a barrier and a bridge between the two continents.TurkeyTurkey is situated at the crossroads of the Balkans, Caucasus, Middle East, and eastern Mediterranean. It is among the larger countries of the region in terms of territory and population, and its land area is greater than that of any European state. Nearly all of the country is in Asia, comprising the oblong peninsula of Asia Minor—also known as Anatolia (Anadolu)—and, in the east, part of a mountainous region sometimes known as the Armenian Highland. The remainder—Turkish Thrace (Trakya)—lies in the extreme southeastern part of Europe, a tiny remnant of an empire that once extended over much of the Balkans.Exploring Turkey's rich history and cultural heritageOverview of Turkey.(more)See all videos for this articleThe country has a north-south extent that ranges from about 300 to 400 miles (480 to 640 km), and it stretches about 1,000 miles from west to east. Turkey is bounded on the north by the Black Sea, on the northeast by Georgia and Armenia, on the east by Azerbaijan and Iran, on the southeast by Iraq and Syria, on the southwest and west by the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea, and on the northwest by Greece and Bulgaria. The capital is Ankara, and its largest city and seaport is Istanbul.Bosporus RiverBoats on the Bosporus at Istanbul.(more)Of a total boundary length of some 4,000 miles (6,440 km), about three-fourths is maritime, including coastlines along the Black Sea, the Aegean, and the Mediterranean, as well as the narrows that link the Black and Aegean seas. These narrows—which include the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles—are known collectively as the Turkish straits; Turkey’s control of the straits, the only outlet from the Black Sea, has been a major factor in its relations with other states. Most of the islands along the Aegean coast are Greek; only the islands of Gökçeada and Bozcaada remain in Turkish hands. The maritime boundary with Greece has been a source of dispute between the two countries on numerous occasions since World War II.
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A View of the Middle East
The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extentA long succession of political entities existed in Asia Minor over the centuries. Turkmen tribes invaded Anatolia in the 11th century ce, founding the Seljuq empire; during the 14th century the Ottoman Empire began a long expansion, reaching its peak during the 17th century. The modern Turkish republic, founded in 1923 after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, is a nationalist, secular, parliamentary democracy. After a period of one-party rule under its founder, Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), and his successor, Turkish governments since the 1950s have been produced by multiparty elections based on universal adult suffrage. Land Relief Physical features of TurkeyMount AraratMount Ararat, viewed from Turkey.(more)Turkey is a predominantly mountainous country, and true lowland is confined to the coastal fringes. About one-fourth of the surface has an elevation above 4,000 feet (1,200 metres), and less than two-fifths lies below 1,500 feet (460 metres). Mountain crests exceed 7,500 feet (2,300 metres) in many places, particularly in the east, where Turkey’s highest mountain, Mount Ararat (Ağrı), reaches 16,945 feet (5,165 metres) close to the borders with Armenia and Iran. In the southeast the Uludoruk Peak reaches 15,563 feet (4,744 metres); though further west, the Demirkazık Peak (12,320 feet [3,755 metres]) and Mount Aydos (11,414 feet [3,479 metres]) are also significant peaks. Steep slopes are common throughout the country, and flat or gently sloping land makes up barely one-sixth of the total area. These relief features affect other aspects of the physical environment, producing climates often much harsher than might be expected for a country of Turkey’s latitude and reducing the availability and productivity of agricultural land. Structurally, the country lies within the geologically young folded-mountain zone of Eurasia, which in Turkey trends predominantly east to west. The geology of Turkey is complex, with sedimentary rocks ranging from Paleozoic to Quaternary, numerous intrusions, and extensive areas of volcanic material. Four main regions can be identified: the northern folded zone, the southern folded zone, the central massif, and the Arabian platform.
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The northern folded zone Black SeaCove on a port along the coast of the Black Sea, Amasra, Turkey.(more)The northern folded zone comprises a series of mountain ridges, increasing in elevation toward the east, that occupy a belt about 90 to 125 miles (145 to 200 km) wide immediately south of the Black Sea. The system as a whole is referred to as the Pontic Mountains (Doğukaradeniz Dağları). In the west the system has been fractured by the faulting that produced the Turkish straits; in Thrace the Ergene lowlands are among the largest in the country, and the main mountain range—the Yıldız (Istranca)—reaches only 3,379 feet (1,030 metres). Lowlands also occur to the south of the Sea of Marmara and along the lower Sakarya River east of the Bosporus. High ridges trending east-west rise abruptly from the Black Sea coast, and the coastal plain is thus narrow, opening out only in the deltas of the Kızıl and Yeşil rivers. These rivers break through the mountain barrier in a zone of weakness where summits are below 2,000 feet (600 metres), dividing the Pontic Mountains into western and eastern sections. In the western section, between the Sakarya and Kızıl rivers, there are four main ridges: the Küre, Bolu, Ilgaz, and Köroğlu mountains. East of the Yeşil the system is higher, narrower, and steeper. Less than 50 miles from the coast, peaks rise to more than 10,000 feet (3,000 metres), with a maximum elevation of 12,917 feet (3,937 metres) in the Kaçkar range. Separated by the narrow trough of the Kelkit and Çoruh river valleys stands a second ridge that rises above 8,000 feet (2,400 metres). The southern folded zone The southern folded zone occupies the southern third of the country, from the Aegean to the Gulf of Iskenderun, from which it extends to the northeast and east around the northern side of the Arabian platform. Over most of its length, the Mediterranean coastal plain is narrow, but there are two major lowland embayments. The Antalya Plain extends inland some 20 miles (30 km) from the Gulf of Antalya; the Adana Plain, measuring roughly 90 by 60 miles (145 by 100 km), comprises the combined deltas of the Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers. The mountain system falls into two main parts. West of Antalya a complex series of ridges with a north-south trend reaches 6,500 to 8,200 feet (2,000 to 2,500 metres), but the most prominent feature is the massive Taurus (Toros) mountain system, running parallel to the Mediterranean coast and extending along the southern border. There crest lines are often above 8,000 feet (2,400 metres), and several peaks exceed 11,000 feet (3,400 metres).
In the eastern third of the country, the northern and southern fold systems converge to produce an extensive area of predominantly mountainous terrain, with pockets of relatively level land confined to valleys and enclosed basins, as are found around Malatya, Elazığ, and Muş.
10 of the best places to visit in Türkiye (Turkey) - Lonely Planet
f the best places to visit in Türkiye (Turkey) - Lonely PlanetSearch My trips Saves eLibraryAccount settingsSign outDestinationsBest in TravelFeaturedAfricaAntarcticaAsiaCaribbean IslandsCentral AmericaEuropeMiddle EastNorth AmericaPacificSouth AmericaSee all DestinationsPlanningTrip planning toolsFeaturedPlan with local expertsBudget your tripBook tours and activitiesSee all PlanningStoriesLonely Planet NewsletterFeaturedAdventure TravelArt and CultureBeaches, Coasts and IslandsFamily HolidaysFestivalsFood and DrinkHoneymoon and RomanceRoad TripsSustainable TravelTravel on a BudgetWildlife and NatureSee all StoriesShopNew Book ReleasesFeaturedDestination guidesPictorial & giftsPhrasebooksLonely Planet KidsSee all ShopTravel StoriesTurkey10 of the best places to visit in TürkiyeLoginSave Jennifer HattamDec 14, 2023 • 6 min readPlan your visit to Türkiye with these top places to see © rudi_suardi / Getty Images10 of the best places to visit in TürkiyeLoginSave Dec 14, 2023 • 6 min readBack to TopShareThe eclectic city of Istanbul, the fantastical rock forms of Cappadocia, the ancient ruins of Ephesus, and the glimmering Mediterranean and Aegean coastlines are Türkiye’s biggest draws, but each region of the country has something distinct to offer.The diversity of landscapes, heritage and culinary culture will surprise those who have never ventured beyond holiday resorts and the beach. Even though it’s easy to get around Türkiye, the country has too much to see and do to tackle it all on one trip. Because most domestic flights route through Istanbul, spend at least a few days in this dynamic global metropolis before heading out to one of our other top places to visit in Türkiye.
Istanbul's sights reflect its powerful history © sinerji / Shutterstock1. Istanbul
Best for ancient sites and modern neighborhoods
One of the world’s greatest cities, Istanbul should be on every traveler’s must-visit list. Highlight sights like the grand Byzantine basilica Aya Sofya, often called Hagia Sophia in English, and the Ottoman sultans’ lavish Topkapı Palace attest to the city’s centuries-long history as the capital of powerful empires.
But set aside some time to experience Istanbul as it is today, too. Go cafe- or bar-hopping in the hip Kadıköy neighborhood, wander the backstreets of more conservative Fatih or peruse contemporary art in Beyoğlu. Don’t forget the simple pleasure of drinking çay (tea) on the ferry while taking in spectacular views of the city.
Planning tip: You could easily spend your entire vacation in Istanbul, but if you have the time, it's worth venturing further afield in search of other Turkish delights.
Marvel at Cappadocia's fascinating landscape © Fatma Barlas Özkavalc_o_lu / 500px2. Cappadocia
Best for its unique landscape
Cappadocia is a geological wonderland in the center of Türkiye. The history of early Christians in Anatolia comes alive at the Göreme Open-Air Museum and the other cave churches and underground cities scattered around the valley. Romance blossoms in the area’s cozy cave hotels and restaurants, not to mention sunrise balloon rides complete with a champagne toast. Adventure awaits amid the green valleys and undulating rocks for hikers, mountain bikers and trail runners.
Patara is home to one of Türkiye's best beaches © Andrew Mayovskyy / Shutterstock3. Turquoise Coast
Best for history lovers and beaches
Yes, Türkiye's Mediterranean coastline between Fethiye and Antalya is full of beautiful places for sun, sea and sand vacations, but it’s also dappled with evidence of the ancient civilizations that once populated the area. The seaside ruins of Patara (which boasts one of Türkiye's best beaches too) and Phaselis are particularly picturesque, and the rock tombs of Myra are especially impressive. The Antalya Museum offers good insights into the region’s history. Explore by sea on a gület cruise, on foot along the Lycian Way hiking path or by driving the scenic (but winding!) coastal roads.
Trabzon is an air travel hub in the Eastern Black Sea region © Heracles Kritikos / Shutterstock4. Eastern Black Sea and Kaçkar Mountains
Best for rural traditions
The rough, cold waters of the Black Sea aren’t particularly inviting, but turn your gaze inland, where lush green valleys spill down to the coast from high peaks, to see the region’s appeal. The lower elevations are home to most of Türkiye's tea and hazelnut production, while the high plateaus (yaylalar) like Pokut, that were once used as summer pastures for livestock, are becoming popular with tourists seeking out scenic views and a taste of traditional Black Sea culture and cuisine. Further above, the Kaçkar Mountains offer spectacular trekking in summer for experienced hikers.
Planning tip: Trabzon, home to the cliff-side Sumela Monastery, is the area’s main hub for air travel.
Mardin is a good base for visiting the wider southeastern Anatolia region © Luis Dafos / Getty Images5. Southeastern Anatolia
Best for culture and food
The often-overlooked southeastern Anatolia region is one of Türkiye's cultural – and culinary – stars. The cities of Gaziantep and Antakya (Hatay) are famed for their food, and both also boast museums with incredible collections of Roman mosaics. Mardin’s picturesque, well-preserved old town also makes a great base for exploring the monasteries and Roman ruins in the surrounding area. The world’s oldest religious site, Göbeklitepe, lies just outside of Şanlıurfa, which has its own fine archaeology museum and bazaar.
6. Datça and Bozburun peninsulas
Best for relaxation
Chilling out and getting back to nature is the order of the day on the remote Datça and Bozburun peninsulas in the south Aegean. In place of the boisterous nightlife of nearby Bodrum and Marmaris, you’ll find miles of dramatic rocky coastline, scenic rural villages, and small, quiet beach resorts and seaside towns.
Planning tip: The Carian Trail long-distance hiking path encircles both peninsulas. Check before setting out as some sections of the route were inaccessible following wildfire damage in the summer of 2021.
Spend time in the wonderful landscapes of Türkiye's far east © muratart / Shutterstock7. Türkiye's far east
Best for rugged beauty
The vast landscapes of Türkiye's far east have a remote ruggedness unmatched elsewhere in the country. Perhaps best known to travelers as the terminus of the Doğu Ekpresi (Eastern Express), a popular and scenic overnight train trip from Ankara, the border city of Kars retains striking architecture from its years as a Russian outpost in the 1800s. Nearby are the extensive and evocative UNESCO-listed ruins of Ani, an ancient Armenian capital.
A three-hour drive south will take you to the remote İshak Paşa Palace, passing by the fabled Mt Ararat (Ağrı Dağı) en route. Continue on to Van, where you can fuel up on one of the city’s famously elaborate breakfast spreads before visiting the fine museum in town and taking a day excursion to Akdamar Kilisesi, a masterfully decorated Armenian church and monastery complex on a small island in Lake Van.
Explore the ruins of the ancient city of Troy © Standret / Shutterstock8. Gallipoli and the North Aegean
Best for WWI history and ancient Troy
Cemeteries devoted to the tens of thousands of soldiers who died in bloody battles on the Gallipoli Peninsula during WWI are scattered around bucolic rolling hills, all the more poignant amidst such serenely beautiful landscapes.
The area is also the gateway to Türkiye's North Aegean coast, a more relaxed alternative to the Mediterranean where you can take a leisurely tour of pleasant seaside towns like Ayvalık and Foça, the island wineries of Bozcaada, the ancient city of Troy (with its standout museum) and the spectacularly sited hilltop acropolis of Bergama.
Visitors are attracted to Safranbolu's Ottoman vibe © Birol Bali / Shutterstock9. Safranbolu
Best for Ottoman atmosphere
Named for the saffron that was grown and traded here for centuries, Safranbolu is today popular with visitors who come to soak in its old Ottoman atmosphere. Many of the town’s historic wood-framed mansions have been restored and converted into picture-perfect boutique hotels, cafes and restaurants.
Planning tip: If it all starts to seem a little too cutesy, the canyons, waterfalls and woods of the nearby Yenice Forest are a natural tonic.
The travertines of Pamukkale are among the most photographed sites in Türkiye © THANAN / Shutterstock10. Pamukkale
Best for its ancient spa
The bright-white terraces of Pamukkale are surely one of the most photographed sites in Türkiye, incongruously gleaming above the rural town like freshly fallen snow. The warm mineral water that flows through them was the basis for the ancient spa city of Hierapolis, whose extensive remains sprawl out along the hilltop next to the famous travertines.
Planning tip: Pamukkale also makes a good base for visiting other nearby ancient sites like Laodicea, Tripolis and – most notably – the gorgeous ruins of Afrodisias with its impressive collection of Roman marble sculptures.
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Turkey travel - Lonely Planet | Europe
ey travel - Lonely Planet | EuropeSearch My trips Saves eLibraryAccount settingsSign outDestinationsBest in TravelFeaturedAfricaAntarcticaAsiaCaribbean IslandsCentral AmericaEuropeMiddle EastNorth AmericaPacificSouth AmericaSee all DestinationsPlanningTrip planning toolsFeaturedPlan with local expertsBudget your tripBook tours and activitiesSee all PlanningStoriesLonely Planet NewsletterFeaturedAdventure TravelArt and CultureBeaches, Coasts and IslandsFamily HolidaysFestivalsFood and DrinkHoneymoon and RomanceRoad TripsSustainable TravelTravel on a BudgetWildlife and NatureSee all StoriesShopNew Book ReleasesFeaturedDestination guidesPictorial & giftsPhrasebooksLonely Planet KidsSee all ShopTurkey Back to top©Givaga/Getty ImagesTurkeyEuropeA richly historical land with some of the best cuisine you will ever taste, scenery from beaches to mountains and the great city of İstanbul.Best Time to VisitBest Places to VisitLeave the planning to a local expertExperience the real Turkey. Let a local expert handle the planning for you.Get startedAttractionsMust-see attractionsHagia Sophia Grand MosqueSultanahmetRight in the heart of İstanbul’s historic center, this sacred Byzantine building remains an important symbol of power.Topkapı PalaceSultanahmetTopkapı is the subject of more colourful stories than most of the world's museums put together. Libidinous sultans, ambitious courtiers, beautiful…Kariye MosqueIstanbulİstanbul has more than its fair share of Byzantine monuments, but few are as drop-dead gorgeous as this mosaic- and fresco-laden church. Nestled in the…HierapolisPamukkaleThis ancient spa city's location atop Pamukkale's tourist-magnet travertines is quite spectacular. Founded as a curative centre around 190 BC by Eumenes…Bergama Acropolisİzmir & the North AegeanOne of Turkey's most impressive archaeological sites, Bergama's acropolis is dramatically sited on a hill to the northeast of the town centre. There's…Süleymaniye MosqueIstanbulThe Süleymaniye crowns one of İstanbul's seven hills and dominates the Golden Horn, providing a landmark for the entire city. Though it's not the largest…Basilica CisternSultanahmetThis subterranean structure was commissioned by Emperor Justinian and built in 532. The largest surviving Byzantine cistern in İstanbul, it was…Hatay Archaeology MuseumEastern MediterraneanThis incomparable museum contains one of the world's finest collections of Roman and Byzantine mosaics, covering a period from the 1st century AD to the…View more attractionsView more attractionsAttractionsTop picks from our travel experts12 unmissable things to do in TurkeyCurated by Jennifer HattamBlue MosqueSultanahmetİstanbul's most photogenic building was the grand project of Sultan Ahmet I (r 1603–17), whose tomb is located on the north side of the site facing…Nemrut Dağı SummitSoutheastern AnatoliaNemrut Dağı's famous statues sit on two terraces flanking Antiochus I's giant gravel-covered, mountaintop burial mound. Their 2m-high heads, toppled from…Rüstem Paşa MosqueIstanbulNestled in the middle of the busy Tahtakale shopping district, this diminutive mosque is a gem. Dating from 1560, it was designed by Sinan for Rüstem Paşa…Patara BeachTurquoise CoastBacked by large sand dunes, this splendid, 18km-long sandy beach is one of Turkey's best. Due to its length, you can find a quiet spot even in the height…Yeni KaplıcaBursaThe 'new thermal bath' is actually the city's oldest, founded by 6th-century Emperor Justinian I, and renovated in 1522 by Süleyman the Magnificent's…EphesusEphesusOf Turkey's hundreds of ancient cities and classical ruins, Ephesus is the grandest and best preserved. A Unesco-listed World Heritage Site, it's the best…Basilica CisternSultanahmetThis subterranean structure was commissioned by Emperor Justinian and built in 532. The largest surviving Byzantine cistern in İstanbul, it was…KnidosDatça & Bozburun PeninsulasThe ruins of Knidos (kuh-nee-dos), a once-prosperous Dorian port city dating to 400 BC, lies scattered across the western tip of the Datça Peninsula…ÇatalhöyükKonyaRising 20m above the surrounding flat Konya plains, the East Mound at Çatalhöyük is one of the most important, and largest, Neolithic settlements on earth…Kılıç Ali Paşa HamamıBeyoğluIt took seven years to develop a conservation plan for this 1580 Mimar Sinan–designed building and complete the meticulous restoration. Fortunately, the…Terraced HousesEphesusThe roofed complex here contains seven well-preserved Roman homes built on three terraces, which are well worth the extra visiting fee. As you ascend the…Topkapı PalaceSultanahmetTopkapı is the subject of more colourful stories than most of the world's museums put together. Libidinous sultans, ambitious courtiers, beautiful…Grand BazaarIstanbulThe colourful and chaotic Grand Bazaar is the heart of İstanbul's Old City and has been so for centuries. Starting as a small vaulted bedesten (warehouse)…Haleplibahçe Mosaic MuseumŞanlıurfaThis domed structure protects the excellent Haleplibahçe (Aleppo Gardens) mosaics, part of a Roman villa complex discovered in 2006 when construction…Ayasofya Hürrem Sultan HamamıSultanahmetThis meticulously restored twin hamam dating to 1556 offers the most luxurious traditional bath experience in the Old City. Designed by Mimar Sinan, it…Aqueduct of ValensIstanbulRising majestically over the traffic on busy Atatürk Bulvarı, this limestone aqueduct is one of the city's most distinctive landmarks. Commissioned by…Derinkuyu Underground CityCappadociaDerinkuyu underground city, 10km south of Kaymaklı, has cavernous rooms arrayed on seven levels reached by skinny long tunnels. When you get all the way…Hagia Sophia Grand MosqueSultanahmetRight in the heart of İstanbul’s historic center, this sacred Byzantine building remains an important symbol of power.GöbeklitepeŞanlıurfaAround 11km northeast of Urfa, 'Pot Belly Hill' was first excavated in 1994 by a team led by Professor Klaus Schmidt. Their discovery of a ritual complex…Olympos RuinsTurquoise CoastThe rambling ruins of ancient Olympos are scattered beside the trickling Ulupınar Stream and set inside a deep, shaded valley that runs directly to the…Hatay Archaeology MuseumEastern MediterraneanThis incomparable museum contains one of the world's finest collections of Roman and Byzantine mosaics, covering a period from the 1st century AD to the…Weekly MarketFethiyeFethiye's enormous market takes place on Tuesday along the canal between Atatürk Caddesi and Pürşabey Caddesi, next to the stadium.Gaziantep Zeugma Mosaic MuseumGaziantepThis museum does a stellar job of displaying one of the world's most important mosaic collections, most of which was unearthed at the Roman site of Belkıs…Süleymaniye MosqueIstanbulThe Süleymaniye crowns one of İstanbul's seven hills and dominates the Golden Horn, providing a landmark for the entire city. Though it's not the largest…Crusader CastleTurquoise CoastThe ruins of ancient Simena include this impressive fortress perched on top of the hill looking out to sea. Within the castle a couple of canons are…BazaarŞanlıurfaDive into Urfa's bazaar alleys to find stalls selling everything from sheepskins and pigeons to jeans and handmade shoes. It was largely built by Süleyman…Eski KaplıcaBursaThe bath is hewn of marble and the hot rooms have plunge pools at this restored 14th-century hamam, run by the adjacent Kervansaray Termal Hotel on the…Cağaloğlu HamamıSultanahmetBuilt in 1741 by order of Sultan Mahmut I, this gorgeous hamam offers separate baths for men and women and a range of bath packages incorporating services…MyraTurquoise CoastIf you only have time to see one striking honeycomb of Lycian rock tombs, choose the memorable ruins of ancient Myra. Located about 2km inland from Demre…ChimaeraTurquoise CoastKnown in Turkish as Yanartaş, or 'Burning Rock', the Chimaera is a cluster of small flames that naturally blaze on the rocky slopes of Mt Olympos. At…Bakırcılar ÇarşısıGaziantepGaziantep's labyrinthine bazaar stretches between Hamdi Kutler Caddesi and Kundaracılar Çarşısı Sokak. There are a couple of entrances so just dive in and…Lycian WayTurquoise CoastAcclaimed as one of the world's top-10 long-distance walks, the Lycian Way follows signposted paths around the Teke Peninsula to Antalya. The 500km route…Kaymaklı Underground CityCappadociaKaymaklı underground city features a maze of tunnels and rooms carved eight levels deep into the earth, though only four are open to the public. The…Planning ToolsExpert guidance to help you plan your tripBest Things to DoWith its lively cities, spectacular landscapes and rich heritage, Turkey has something for every type of traveler, from history buffs to beach bums.Read article TransportationCheap, frequent domestic flights, generally well-maintained roads and a vast bus network give travelers ample options for getting around Turkey.Read article Visa RequirementsFrom visa costs to rules around cruise passengers, our guide to Turkey’s entry requirements covers everything you need to know before visiting the country.Read article Best Road TripsWith nearly 8000km of coastline and endless expanses of countryside, Turkey is prime road trip territory. Here's our pick of Turkey's best road trips.Read article View morePlan with a localExperience the real TurkeyLet a local expert craft your dream trip.Get startedArticlesLatest stories from TurkeyRead more articlesFilter by interest:All InterestsAdventure TravelArt & CultureBeaches, Coasts & IslandsFood & Drink All Interests Adventure Travel Art & Culture Beaches, Coasts & Islands Food & DrinkTips & Advice10 of the best places to visit in TürkiyeDec 14, 2023 • 6 min readPlan your trip to Türkiye with this guide to the best places to visit.BeachesDiscover where locals travel in TürkiyeOct 4, 2023 • 5 min readLGBTQIA+What LGBTQ travelers need to know before visiting TurkeyJun 8, 2023 • 4 min readActivitiesTurkey's best hikes are a deep dive into historyFeb 1, 2022 • 7 min readRoad TripsThe 8 most amazing road trips in Turkey for history and adventureJan 27, 2022 • 8 min readDestination PracticalitiesTurkey is a country for all seasons – here are the best times to visitJan 5, 2022 • 6 min readShopping12 unmissable things to do in TurkeyJan 3, 2022 • 8 min readBeachesThe best beaches in Turkey for sunsets, windsurfing, partying and moreNov 4, 2021 • 5 min readNational Parks12 stunning national parks in Turkey to escape the crowds Oct 20, 2021 • 6 min readBudget TravelThe easiest ways to get around in TurkeyOct 12, 2021 • 6 min readRead more articlesin partnership with getyourguideBook popular activities in TurkeyGuidebooksPurchase our award-winning guidebooksGet to the heart of Turkey with one of our in-depth,
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12 best things to do in Turkey - Lonely PlanetSearch My trips Saves eLibraryAccount settingsSign outDestinationsBest in TravelFeaturedAfricaAntarcticaAsiaCaribbean IslandsCentral AmericaEuropeMiddle EastNorth AmericaPacificSouth AmericaSee all DestinationsPlanningTrip planning toolsFeaturedPlan with local expertsBudget your tripBook tours and activitiesSee all PlanningStoriesLonely Planet NewsletterFeaturedAdventure TravelArt and CultureBeaches, Coasts and IslandsFamily HolidaysFestivalsFood and DrinkHoneymoon and RomanceRoad TripsSustainable TravelTravel on a BudgetWildlife and NatureSee all StoriesShopNew Book ReleasesFeaturedDestination guidesPictorial & giftsPhrasebooksLonely Planet KidsSee all ShopTravel StoriesTurkey12 unmissable things to do in TurkeyLoginSave Jennifer HattamJan 3, 2022 • 8 min readThe landscape of Cappadocia and its horizon filled with hot air balloons is one of the most iconic sights in Turkey © Francesco Riccardo Iacomino / Getty Images12 unmissable things to do in TurkeyLoginSave Jan 3, 2022 • 8 min readBack to TopShareWhether your ideal vacation involves sunbathing on a Mediterranean beach, trekking in rugged mountains or learning more about the complex cultural layers laid down over thousands of years of history, Turkey has options to entice every kind of traveler.The country boasts an abundance of ancient sites and diverse natural landscapes, as well as lively cities, tantalizing food and opportunities for adventure. You'll never cover everything on just the one vacation but here’s our pick of the best things to do in Turkey to get you started.
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Wander the ancient streets of Ephesus © Yasar Turanli / Shutterstock
Tour the ancient city of Ephesus
The well-preserved streets of Ephesus are lined with evidence of what daily life was like for the ancient Greeks and Romans who inhabited the city for hundreds of years: the remains of their shops and schools, temples and public toilets.
Highlights of the main site include the intricately carved facade of the Library of Celsus – once the third-largest library in the world – a huge open-air theater, a Roman bath and numerous monumental fountains and gates. Well worth the separate admission fee are the Terraced Houses. These luxurious residences belonged to the Roman elite and are full of mosaics, frescoes and marble worthy of an episode of “Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous.”
Luxuriate in a Turkish bath
In the days when most homes lacked indoor plumbing, hamams (commonly referred to as Turkish baths in English) played a crucial role both as a place to get clean and to socialize. Today, they’re typically a special-occasion destination, more often frequented by tourists than locals, but still a luxury well worth indulging in.
The full treatment includes a scrub and massage by a same-gender attendant, but you can also opt to bathe yourself in their steamy chambers. With their marble-covered interiors and sky-lit domes, the grandest hamams – such as the Ayasofya Hürrem Sultan Hamamı, the Cağaloğlu Hamamı and the Kılıç Ali Paşa Hamamı in Istanbul – are a treat for the eyes as well as the body. In the old Ottoman capital of Bursa, hamams like Eski Kaplıca and Yeni Kaplıca feature pools fed by the area’s natural thermal springs.
See Cappadocia from above and below
First thing in the morning, the skies above Cappadocia fill with hot-air balloons that take visitors floating above the area’s canyons, fairy chimneys and other fantastical rock formations. Even if you don’t fancy a flight, it’s worth getting up early to see the colorful aerial display from the ground. For a more, er, down-to-earth experience, follow labyrinthine tunnels many stories deep into underground cities such as Derinkuyu and Kaymaklı, where thousands of people took shelter from invaders for months at a time. In addition to living quarters, these subterranean settlements included facilities to stable animals, cook, worship and even make wine.
A meze dish
Feast on meze and fish
The “rakı-balık” night is a quintessential Turkish dining experience, particularly in Istanbul and along the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts. What some call the national drink of Turkey, rakı is a strong anise-flavoured liqueur typically mixed with water and ice, and balık is fish. Such meals typically start with an assortment of meze, which are often the real stars of the show.
These small dishes meant for sharing feature both classic and creative combinations of vegetables, herbs and seafood, often topped with yogurt or cooked in olive oil. If you do manage to save room for the main course, popular fish choices depending on the season include grilled levrek (sea bass) and çipura (sea bream), or lightly fried istavrit (mackerel), barbun (red mullet) and hamsi (anchovies).
Shop in colorful bazaars
Despite the proliferation of shopping malls and grocery stores, traditional bazaar culture remains strong in Turkey. Most historic centers will have at least one çarşı, a shopping arcade or maze-like marketplace district with vendors selling everything from cheap souvenirs to handmade leather or metal crafts. Istanbul’s Grand Bazaar (known as the Kapalı Çarşı, or “covered marketplace” in Turkish) is the most famous example, but ones in cities like Gaziantep and Şanlıurfa are more atmospheric and authentic.
Equally colorful and important to local life is the pazar, an open-air market for fresh seasonal fruits and vegetables and other food products, as well as clothing and household goods. Depending on the town or city neighborhood, they might be set up in the street under rigged-up tarps, in an emptied parking lot or garage, or in a purpose-built structure. Held in different areas on set days of the week, they’re cheap and lively places to buy staples or just browse. Some large pazars, like the weekly market in the resort town of Fethiye, feature stalls selling gözleme (stuffed flatbreads) and other simple dishes to sate hungry shoppers.
One of the world's most incredible buildings, the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul © Bernardo Ricci Armani / Getty Images
Admire architectural splendor in Istanbul
The rulers of the city formerly known as Byzantium and Constantinople left their marks in grand style. The Hagia Sophia’s soaring dome still leaves visitors awestruck a millennium and a half after its construction, while the towering Aqueduct of Valens and the vast subterranean Basilica Cistern attest to the impressive engineering feats that the Romans employed to supply the city and its residents with drinking water.
With a prime position overlooking the confluence of the Bosphorus, Golden Horn and Marmara Sea, Topkapi Palace evokes the might of the Ottoman Empire at its peak: lavishly decorated chambers, a treasury dripping with massive jewels and a kitchen that could feed 4000 people. Istanbul’s minaret-studded skyline is a heritage of the Ottomans as well. The famous Blue Mosque gets the most attention, but visitors shouldn’t miss the tiny, tile-bedecked Rüstem Paşa Mosque and the graceful Süleymaniye Mosque, perched atop one of the old city’s seven hills. History buffs can really dig into the different cultural eras in Istanbul by exploring its wealth of museums detailing the fascinating legacy of the city.
Cruise turquoise waters on a gület
Few vacations are more relaxing than a multi-day cruise aboard a gület (traditional wooden yacht) plying sections of Turkey’s southwestern coastline between Bodrum and Antalya. While away the long, sunny days swimming in secluded coves, reading or playing tavla (backgammon) on deck, eating fresh-caught fish, drinking rakı as the sun sets and sleeping out under the stars. If you get tired of blissfully lazing around, you can hop ashore along the way to explore the ancient ruins of Knidos, climb to the top of the Crusader Castle in Kaleköy or stop for lunch at one of the cool cafe-restaurants in Kaş.
Hike the Lycian Way
For a more active way to explore the Turquoise Coast, consider taking on part of the Lycian Way, a long-distance trekking path stretching 540 km (335 mi) from Fethiye to Antalya. Best traversed in spring or fall, the sometimes challenging trail winds along spectacular coastal cliffs, through bucolic villages and beach towns, past ancient ruins and up into the mountains.
Most sections have accommodation options in small pensions as well as camping. Highlights along the way include the secluded valley of Kabak, the long sandy beach of Patara, the massive rock tombs of Myra, the ruins of Olympos and the “burning rock” at Çıralı. If you want to see more of Turkey's incredible landscape on foot and escape the crowded tourist spots, extend your trip and spend some time exploring the country's stunning array of national parks.
See incredible Roman mosaics
Tiny colored cubes of glass, ceramic or stone were used during the Roman era to make amazingly detailed tableaux depicting mythological tales, heroic battles, lavish banquets and other scenes. Splendidly preserved examples of these mosaics, which often decorated the floors of grand palaces and villas, can today be found in numerous museums in Turkey, most notably the Gaziantep Zeugma Mosaic Museum, the Hatay Archaeology Museum and the Haleplibahçe Mosaic Museum in Şanlıurfa.
Linger over a leisurely Turkish breakfast
It’s hard to think of a better way to fuel up for a big day of sightseeing than with a Turkish breakfast spread (serpme kahvaltı). Start with the savory nibbles: olives, cheeses, sliced tomatoes and cucumbers, perhaps some spicy pepper paste along with your eggs. Then satisfy your sweet tooth with homemade jams and a decadent swirl of honey and thick cream (kaymak). Different parts of the country have their own special additions: fresh herbs along the Aegean coast, cornmeal cooked with melted butter and cheese (called mıhlama or kuymak) in the Black Sea region, and fermented cheese and hot peppers in Hatay. Endless small glasses of black tea are universal.
Stay locally and you can head up to see the ruins at Nemrut Dağı at sunrise and sunset © Okan Metin / Getty Images
Watch the sunrise from atop Mt. Nemrut
The surreal sight at the summit of Nemrut Dağı is testament to both the extent of the power that can be wielded by a ruler and to its inevitable decline. In the 1st century BCE, a Hellenistic king had massive statues of deities, mythic beasts and other figures built on top of a rocky peak as a monument to his own greatness. Earthquakes over the centuries toppled the heads of these statues from their bodies and they now sit scattered around a stark, remote landscape. Tour groups typically bring visitors up here at sunrise or sunset, but if you stay overnight at one of the simple lodgings a little below the summit, you can experience both.
Imagine the beginnings of human civilization
Turkey is home to some of the world’s most important Neolithic sites, which are still yielding new insights – and questions – about how humans lived more than 10,000 years ago. In the center of the country near Konya, the excavations of Çatalhöyük have provided clues about early “urban” life, the period when people started to transition from nomadic ways to settled agrarian livelihoods. In the southeast outside of Şanlıurfa, the findings at the ritual complex of Göbeklitepe – thought to be the world’s first place of worship – have transformed our understanding of when humans began to develop religious beliefs and practices.
You might also like:Do you need a visa to go to Turkey?The 10 most incredible places to visit in TurkeyHow to drink Turkish coffee like a local
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20 Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Turkey | PlanetWare
20 Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Turkey | PlanetWare
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Turkey Travel Guide: Plan Your Perfect Trip
20 Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Turkey
22 Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Istanbul
16 Top-Rated Attractions & Things to Do in Antalya
20 Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Turkey
Written by Jess Lee Updated May 11, 2023
Author Jess Lee lives in Turkey and has been writing about traveling in Turkey for over a decade. She has authored several travel guidebooks to the country.
Packed to the brim with ancient monuments left over from a parade of empires, and endowed with showcase scenery that never fails to impress, Turkey is a dazzling destination that straddles Asia and Europe.
Ruins in Ephesus, TurkeyIts vibrant culture, famous food, and vast history wow all who venture here, while its glorious landscapes, from the sun-soaked Mediterranean to the mighty mountains and arid steppe, are tourist attractions in themselves.
Whether you want to lap up the Byzantine and Ottoman glories of Istanbul on a city break, laze on the beach, delve into history wandering through ruins such as Ephesus, or see some of the world's most surreal panoramas in Pamukkale and Cappadocia, this country offers visitors a wide range of things to do.
For ideas on the best places to visit read our list of the top tourist attractions in Turkey.
On This Page:
1. Hagia Sophia (Aya Sofya) Mosque
2. Ephesus
3. Cappadocia
4. Topkapı Palace
5. Pamukkale
6. Antalya
7. Cruising the Mediterranean
8. Mount Nemrut
9. Ölüdeniz
10. Aspendos
11. Patara
12. Pergamum
13. The Blue Mosque
14. Troy
15. Ani
16. Safranbolu
17. The Bosphorus
18. Gaziantep Zeugma Mosaic Museum
19. Göbeklitepe
20. Sumela Monastery
Best Time to Visit Turkey
1. Hagia Sophia (Aya Sofya) Mosque
Aya SofyaHighlight: Take in the majestic interior of one of Istanbul's most iconic buildings
Renowned as one of the most beautiful buildings in the world, the spellbinding Byzantine glory of the Hagia Sophia Mosque (Aya Sofya) is not only one of the top things to do in Istanbul, but also in Turkey.
Built by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian in 537 CE, it is renowned as the Byzantine Empire's greatest architectural achievement and has remained the world's largest church for 1,000 years.
The staggering bulk of its exterior is rimmed by the delicate minarets added after the Ottoman conquest, while the sumptuous and cavernous frescoed interior is a grand reminder of old Constantinople's might and power.
This famed monument is a must-do for every tourist visiting the country.
Read More: Exploring Hagia Sophia Mosque: A Visitor's Guide2. Ephesus
EphesusHighlights: Crane your neck at the Library of Celsus, hike up the cavea of the Great Theater, and stroll amid the ruins of this ancient city
Not to be missed, the mighty ruin of Ephesus is a city of colossal monuments and marble-columned roads.
One of the most complete, still-standing famed cities of antiquity in the Mediterranean region, this is the place to experience what life must have been like during the golden age of the Roman Empire.
The city's history dates back to the 10th century BCE, but the major monuments you see today all date from its Roman era when it was a thriving commercial center.
In particular, the Library of Celsus, the complex of frescoed terraced houses, and the Great Theater all point to the wealth and importance of Ephesus during the Roman period.
A sightseeing trip here will take at least half a day to cover the major highlights and longer, if you really want to explore, so make sure you plan your visit so you don't feel rushed.
Read More: Visiting Ephesus: Attractions, Tips & Tours3. Cappadocia
CappadociaHighlights: Take in panoramic views from a hot-air balloon, hike within valleys of volcanic rock, and marvel at cave-chapel Byzantine art
The surreal, swooping rock valleys of Cappadocia are every photographer's dream.
Cliff ridges and hill crests are home to rippling panoramas of wave-like rock or wacky-shaped pinnacles that have been formed by millennia of wind and water action.
And if you don't feel like hiking for the views, this is one of the world's top destinations to take a hot-air balloon ride.
Nestled in this unique lunar-like landscape are the frescoed rock-cut churches and cave-cut architecture of the Byzantine Era, when this area was home to monastic Christian communities.
In particular, the multiple cave-churches of Göreme Open-Air Museum and Ihlara Valley are home to some of the best examples of surviving mid-Byzantine-era religious art in the world.
Cappadocia's villages, half hewn into the hillsides, where travelers base themselves to explore the surrounding countryside, are also an attraction in themselves, with their boutique hotels that allow you to bed down in a cave with full contemporary comforts.
Read More:
Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in CappadociaTop-Rated Things to Do in Turkey4. Topkapı Palace
Topkapi PalaceHighlights: Soak up the Ottoman finery amid the salons of the sultans
Sumptuous beyond belief, Istanbul's Topkapı Palace takes you into the fantastical, opulent world of the Sultans.
It was from here, during the 15th and 16th centuries, that the sultans of the Ottoman era carved out an empire that would extend up into Europe and down through the Middle East and into Africa.
The interiors, with their decadently exuberant tiling and lavish jeweled decor, are an unforgettable peek into the Ottoman's power base.
In particular, don't miss the Imperial Council building, where the empire's business was conducted by the Grand Vizier; the arms collection displayed in the Imperial Treasury; the world-class collection of miniature paintings; and the dazzling Harem rooms, which were designed by the famed Ottoman architect Sinan.
The surrounding public gardens were once the sole domain of the Royal Court but are now open to the public and provide a tranquil, green respite from the city streets.
Read More: Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Istanbul5. Pamukkale
PamukkaleHighlights: Hike up the famed white terraces, swim in the antique pool, then take in the views from the top tier of the theater's cavea
One of Turkey's most famous natural wonders, the pure white travertine terraces of Pamukkale ("Cotton Castle" in English) cascade down the slope looking like an out-of-place snowfield amid the green landscape.
Although the travertines are themselves a highlight of a Turkey trip, the vast and rambling ruins of Greco-Roman Hierapolis, an ancient spa town, lie scattered across the summit of this calcite hill.
After exploring the ancient theater, with its views across the countryside, and the remnants of the city's agora, gymnasium, necropolis, and grand gates, you can swim in the mineral-rich waters which made this ancient spa town famous, in the antique pool.
Afterward, walk down the travertine hill, wading through the pools of water in the upper terraces, to the small modern village of Pamukkale below.
For the best photographs, come at dusk when the travertines glow as the sun sinks below the horizon.
Read More: Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Pamukkale6. Antalya
Picturesque AntalyaHighlights: Stroll the twisty lanes of the old town, sloth on the beach, or launch yourself out on history-filled trips amid the hilltop ruins of the hinterland
This bustling Mediterranean hub has something for everyone.
The two main beaches outside of town are sun-sloth heaven in summer and attract holidaymakers from across Europe. While the old town area, snug right in the center of town, with its cobblestone alleyways rimmed by creaky Ottoman-era mansions, is a wonderful place to explore.
The Antalya Museum is renowned as one of the country's best, with an astonishing collection of Hellenistic and Roman marble statuary, and there are bags of attractions outside of town for travelers who want to use Antalya as a base.
In particular, Antalya is an easy base for day trips to some of Turkey's most famous Greco-Roman ruins, including Aspendos and Perge, which are just outside the city, and the town of Side, with its glut of ruins.
Read More: Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Antalya7. Cruising the Mediterranean
Yachts moored near FethiyeHighlight: Experience Turkey's dramatic coastline from the sea on a scenic slow-travel adventure
Turkey's Mediterranean coastline has ruins galore and many things to do, but for many people, it's all about soaking up the sun while enjoying the gorgeous coastal views.
Cruising on a yacht is the number one activity for visitors to Bodrum and Fethiye for good reason. The steep forest-clad slopes, hidden coves sporting tiny white-sand beaches, and hundreds of scattered islands are the perfect place for exploring by sea. Even diehard landlubbers will be impressed.
One of the most famous trips is known as the Blue Cruise and travels from Fethiye south down the coast until disembarking near Olympos, home to the famous natural phenomenon of the Chimaera.
Read More: Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Bodrum8. Mount Nemrut
Mount NemrutHighlight: Hike up to the summit to see the sun rise over the mountaintop ruins
The top sightseeing drawcard for eastern Turkey, Mount Nemrut's summit funerary mound is scattered with the broken remnants of once mammoth statues, which guarded it.
This weird and lonely place has to be one of Turkey's most peculiar archaeological sites. The giant stone heads of long-forgotten gods stare out from the summit, casting an eerie atmosphere over the barren mountaintop.
The summit's building works are the work of Antiochus I, ruler of the Commagene Kingdom, which lay here in the buffer region between the Roman and Parthian empires.
Antiochus I dedicated this grand funerary mound to himself as a showcase of his importance, raising a 50-meter-high artificial peak on Mount Nemrut's summit and then decorating it with statues of himself and various gods.
The most popular time to visit is at sunrise, so you can watch the statues as they loom out of the dark.
Read More: Exploring Mount Nemrut: A Visitor's Guide9. Ölüdeniz
Paragliding over OludenizHighlights: Turkey's tandem paragliding hub, resort living, and lazy beach life
Impossibly turquoise-blue water. Check. Lush green forest tumbling down a cliff to a white-sand beach. Check. The sheltered inlet of Ölüdeniz, just a short journey from Fethiye, is Turkey's most famous beach, and with scenery that might as well have fallen off a perfect postcard, it's easy to see why its popularity hasn't waned.
If the beach gets too crowded, it's time to take to the skies and experience the stunning aerial views on a tandem paragliding dive off the summit of mighty Babadağ (Mount Baba), which rises up behind the shore.
Oh, did we mention that Ölüdeniz is one of the world's top paragliding destinations? Check.
Read More: Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Fethiye10. Aspendos
Roman Theater of AspendosHighlight: Admire this monumental relic of Roman rule
Just south of the resort city of Antalya, the jaw-dropping mammoth bulk of the Roman Theater of Aspendos celebrates the pomp and ceremony of Marcus Aurelius' rule.
Considered the finest surviving example of a classical age theater still standing in the world, the highly restored, 15,000-seat theater is one of antiquity's star attractions.
Although the theater is the main reason for a visit here (and for most visitors on a half-day trip from nearby Antalya or Side, the theater is all they see) the Aspendos site offers plenty more ruins to explore.
There are remnants of an aqueduct, agora, stadium, and a Byzantine-era basilica, all scattered over the vast hillside area here surrounding the theater.
Read More: Aspendos: A Visitor's Guide
11. Patara
Patara BeachHighlights: Hike amid the Lycian ruins then relax on Turkey's longest beach
With such a long Mediterranean coastline, there's a beach for every type of sun worshipper in Turkey, but Patara is among its most famous swathes of sand.
Trailing for 18 kilometers along the shoreline, the beach offers plenty of space, so even in the height of summer, you can still find a quiet spot far away from the crowds.
Adding to the experience, just behind the sand, are the vast ruins of Ancient Patara, which include a colonnaded street, restored bouleuterion (the parliament of the city), and a theater that sat 5,000 people.
Once you've had your fill of sun, sand, and swimming, wander behind the sand dunes and explore the crumbling remnants of this once-prosperous Lycian city.
Patara is easily reached from both Kas and Fethiye.
Read More: Top-Rated Attractions in Fethiye12. Pergamum
PergamumHighlights: Panoramic vistas across the ruins and surrounding hills from the Acropolis and theater
Turkey has an abundance of Greco-Roman ruins, but none can be so romantically placed as ancient Pergamum in modern-day Bergama.
Once home to one of the ancient world's most important libraries (which rivaled Alexandria's library in prominence) and home to the famed medical school run by Galen, Pergamum's remaining temple remnants now preside dramatically across a hilltop.
It's an incredibly atmospheric place to explore. The Acropolis area with its theater cut into the hillside holds the most remains and offers sweeping panoramic views across the countryside.
Below, the Asklepion area is home to the ruins of the city's renowned medical center.
This is a great place to visit if you want to get a real feel for life in the Classical era.
Read More: Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Pergamum and the North AegeanPergamon Map - Attractions (Historical)13. The Blue Mosque
Interior of the Blue Mosque, IstanbulHighlight: An opulent interior with the Ottoman era's delicately detailed blue-and-white tiles
This famous mosque (officially called the Sultanahmet Mosque), facing the Hagia Sophia Mosque across Sultanahmet Park in Istanbul, is one of Turkey's most visited monuments.
Built by Sultan Ahmed I, the mosque was designed to mimic the Hagia Sophia by the architect Sedefkar Mehmet Ağa, a disciple of the Ottoman era's most renowned architect, Sinan.
With six slender minarets and a sprawling courtyard complex, everything about the Blue Mosque is on a grand scale but it's best known for its prayer hall interior covered in tens of thousands of blue Iznik tiles (for which the mosque gained its moniker), lit by shards of light from 260 windows.
Non-worshipping visitors are welcome to visit outside of prayer times. Everyone must have knees and shoulders covered, and females must wear a headscarf.
14. Troy
Aerial view of TroyHighlight: Strolling amid the ruins of one of the Classical world's most famous mythical cities
One of Turkey's most well-known ancient ruins, this site is thought by many to be the Troy of Homer's Iliad.
Whether it is, or not, the Troy of the Trojan War myths, the multi-layered, rambling ruins here expose a vast history of occupation, abandonment, and reoccupation that stretches right back to the early Bronze Age.
The ruins include well-preserved city walls and fortifications, the remnants of a palace, megarons (Mycenean hall complexes) and houses, along with later Roman-era sanctuary and Odeon monuments.
Just down the road from the Troy site is the new Troy Museum, one of Turkey's best museums.
The vast and thoughtfully collated collection inside tells the tale of Troy, from its earliest occupation right through to the modern era, including the mythology that surrounds the site; the controversial and damaging excavations of early archaeological work here; and the story of the missing cache of gold, silver, and copper artifacts (known as Prium's Treasure) currently held at Moscow's Pushkin Museum, which were unearthed at the site and illegally smuggled out of Turkey by Heinrich Schliemann.
Read More: Visiting Troy from Istanbul
15. Ani
AniHighlight: Rambling this vast site of shattered churches set high on the steppe
The ruins of the powerful Silk Road city of Ani sit abandoned on the plains rubbing up against Turkey's modern border with Armenia.
Once capital of the Armenian Kingdom, Ani's golden age came to an end in the 14th century after Mongol raids, earthquake destruction, and trade route tussling all played their part in the city's decline.
The beautiful red-brick buildings still crumbling away amid the steppe grass have a mesmerizing effect on all who visit.
Don't miss the Church of the Redeemer and the Church of Saint Gregory, with their elaborate stone masonry and fresco remnants still visible; the bulky Ani Cathedral building; and the Manuçehr Mosque, built by the Seljuk Turks when they captured the city in the 11th century and thought to be the first mosque built in what would become Turkey.
Ani Map - Attractions (Historical)16. Safranbolu
Traditional Ottoman houses in SafranboluHighlight: Idly wandering cobblestone streets amid the old town of wood-beamed mansions
Turkey's best-preserved Ottoman town is a fabulously photogenic place of skinny winding alleys crammed with finely restored wooden mansions which were once the home of wealthy merchants and now have been transformed into boutique hotels and restaurants.
There's little to actually do in town. Instead, this is a place to simply stroll the streets and admire the old-world atmosphere.
It's also known for its traditional sweets and crafts and there are plenty of cute shops where you can pick up a unique souvenir.
If you're road-tripping inland from Istanbul, this is a fantastic place to stop-off for the night and experience the historic ambience.
Read More: Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Safranbolu17. The Bosphorus
Bosphorus viewHighlight: Take a scenic sightseeing trip on Istanbul's famed continent-dividing strait
One of the world's great waterways, the Bosphorus Strait separates Europe from Asia and connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara (and hence, out to the Mediterranean).
Cruising along the Bosphorus, whether by hopping local ferries, on a tourist ferry cruise, or a private boat, is one of the great tourist attractions of an Istanbul stay. This is the most relaxing sightseeing opportunity in Istanbul.
Onboard, it's all about soaking up the scenery from the water, with the shorefront lined with Ottoman palaces; villas; and wooden mansions out to Rumeli Fortress, built by Mehmet the Conqueror; and (farther north along the strait), the Byzantine-era ramparts of Anadolu Fortress.
18. Gaziantep Zeugma Mosaic Museum
Gypsy Girl Mosaic inside Gaziantep Zeugma Mosaic MuseumHighlight: A dazzling collection of Greco-Roman mosaic artistry
Due to the ongoing aid response in the aftermath of Turkey's February 2023 earthquake, the Gaziantep Zeugma Mosaic Museum has been temporarily closed. For information on reopening, check the official museum website.
The city of Gaziantep is one of southeastern Turkey's great highlights for a few days of guzzling Gaziantep's renowned baklava and strolling the alleys of its old city district, but its most famous attraction is the Gaziantep Zeugma Mosaic Museum.
The museum contains both one of the largest and most important mosaic collections in the world.
Nearly all the Hellenistic and Roman-era floor mosaics displayed here are originally from the Greco-Roman ruins of the town of Zeugma, which is now half-submerged due to the construction of the Bericik Dam. The mosaics, cleverly curated and displayed so that they can be viewed from their best angles, provide visitors with a sense of the artistry of the Greco-Roman era.
Despite the many huge mosaics here, the most famous mosaic in the collection, known as the Gypsy Girl, is one of the smallest pieces. It is displayed dramatically in its own darkened room, so that the intricate artistry of the piece can be better appreciated.
Read More: Top-Rated Attractions & Things to Do in Gaziantep
19. Göbeklitepe
GöbeklitepeHighlight: Soaking up the atmosphere of standing amid the world's earliest religious monument
One of Turkey's most important ancient ruins, the hilltop site of Göbeklitepe, near Şanlıurfa, has generated hundreds of headlines worldwide, been anointed with UNESCO World Heritage status, (and provided the inspiration for the Netflix series The Gift) since it was opened to the public.
This small site of towering T-shaped pillars, inscribed with animal figures and anthropomorphic details, dates from the pre-pottery Neolithic era and is thought by archaeologists to be the world's earliest religious sanctuary.
Although it may not have the wow-factor of Turkey's many, much later Bronze Age and Greco-Roman ancient sites, Göbeklitepe's importance in our understanding of early human history has made it one of the most popular tourist attractions in Turkey's southeast.
Read More: Top-Rated Attractions & Things to Do in Şanlıurfa
20. Sumela Monastery
Sumela MonasteryHighlight: Exploring this stunning Byzantine religious center that clings to the cliff-side
With its stunning, lonely setting, built into a cliff face, Sumela Monastery (Monastery of the Virgin Mary) is the star attraction for visitors along the Black Sea Coast.
Wandering around this abandoned religious complex, with its church interiors crammed with dazzling and vibrant frescoes, is a must for anyone who makes the long journey to Turkey's northeast region.
The monastery first opened during the Byzantine era and only ceased operation as a working religious center in 1923, when the monks were forced to leave as part of the Greek-Turkish Population Exchange.
Today, wandering its empty cells, it's easy to imagine the isolated lives of the monks who once lived here.
Read More: Top-Rated Tourist Attractions on the Black Sea CoastBest Time to Visit Turkey
Overall, depending on what you plan to do, Turkey can be visited year-round, but for the most dependable weather, the best times to visit are the months of May, June, July, August, September, and October.
May, June, September, and October are the prime time for Turkey travels, with plenty of blue skies and sunshine and softer light for photography, but fewer crowds. Just remember to pack a warmer layer for after dark and a jacket in case of rain.
Spring wildflowers bloom across the countryside in May, while the displays of colorful fall foliage during October make these two months the best for keen photographers.
July and August are the most popular months to visit, with temperatures regularly peaking over 30 degrees Celsius and little chance of rain disrupting your plans. If you're here specifically for the beach and activities on the water, this is peak season.
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Turkey Maps & Facts - World Atlas
Turkey Maps & Facts - World Atlas
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Turkey occupies an area of 783,356 sq. km with 97% of this area located in Asia and the rest in Europe. As observed on the physical map of the country above, the European part of Turkey called Eastern Thrace is located at the extreme eastern edge of the Balkan Peninsula. The Asian part that is separated from the former by the Turkish Straits, occupies most of the Anatolian Plateau region.
The European side of Turkey is mostly a series of rolling hills, while across the Bosporus Strait into central Turkey, the land rises into an elevated central plateau (Anatolian), surrounded by (and mixed with) high, rugged mountains, including the Taurus, Koroglu and Pontic ranges, all of which have been marked on the map above.
Many peaks in Turkey exceed 10,000 feet, and the tallest, most rugged ones, are found in the Eastern Taurus Mountains.
Turkey's highest point is Mt. Ararat which peaks at 16,948 ft. (5,166m).
Along the Black Sea and Mediterranean coastlines, the land is lower and quite fertile.
The Tigras, Kizilirmak, Sakarya, and Euphrates are the most significant rivers, and Lake Van is the largest lake.
As a geological point-of-interest, the country is positioned on one of the planet's major fault lines, and earthquakes are rather common.
Provinces of Turkey Map
Turkey is divided into 81 provinces (iller, singular - ili) for the sake of proper administration. These provinces are further subdivided into 937 districts and smaller subdivisions. The 81 provinces in alphabetical order are as follows: Adana, Adiyaman, Afyonkarahisar, Agri, Aksaray, Amasya, Ankara, Antalya, Ardahan, Artvin, Aydin, Balikesir, Bartin, Batman, Bayburt, Bilecik, Bingol, Bitlis, Bolu, Burdur, Bursa, Canakkale, Cankiri, Corum, Denizli, Diyarbakir, Duzce, Edirne, Elazig, Erzincan, Erzurum, Eskisehir, Gaziantep, Giresun, Gumushane, Hakkari, Hatay, Igdir, Isparta, Istanbul, Izmir (Smyrna), Kahramanmaras, Karabuk, Karaman, Kars, Kastamonu, Kayseri, Kilis, Kirikkale, Kirklareli, Kirsehir, Kocaeli, Konya, Kutahya, Malatya, Manisa, Mardin, Mersin, Mugla, Mus, Nevsehir, Nigde, Ordu, Osmaniye, Rize, Sakarya, Samsun, Sanliurfa, Siirt, Sinop, Sirnak, Sivas, Tekirdag, Tokat, Trabzon (Trebizond), Tunceli, Usak, Van, Yalova, Yozgat, and Zonguldak.
With an area of 40,813.52 sq. km, Konya is the biggest province of Turkey by area and Istanbul is the most populous one.
Ankara, the capital city of Turkey and the country’s second-largest city is located in the central part of the Anatolian peninsula.
Where is Turkey?
Turkey is a transcontinental Eurasian country. The major part of the country lies in the Anatolian Plateau of Western Asia while a small part is located on Southeastern Europe's Balkan Peninsula. The Turkish Straits (Bosphorus and Dardanelles) and Sea of Marmara separate the European part of Turkey called East Thrace from Anatolia. Turkey is located in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres of the Earth. It is bordered by seven countries: Greece and Bulgaria to the northwest, Georgia to the northeast, Armenia and Iran to the east, Iraq to the southeast, and Syria to the south. Nakhchivan, an exclave of Azerbaijan also borders Turkey to the east. The country has coastlines on the Black Sea to the north Aegean Sea to the west and the Mediterranean Sea to the south.
Turkey Bordering Countries:
Greece, Iraq, Georgia, Syria, Bulgaria, Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan.
Regional Maps: Map of Europe
Outline Map of Turkey
The blank outline map above represents the Asian territory of Turkey. The European part which is only a small portion of the country is separated from the Asian section by the Turkish Straits. The above map can be downloaded, printed, and used for coloring or map-pointing.
The outline map represents the Asian part of Turkey, a transcontinental country in Eurasia. The European part of the country extends to the west but is separated from the Asian part by the Turkish Straits.
Key Facts
Legal Name
Republic of Turkey
Flag
Capital City
Ankara
39 56 N, 32 52 E
Total Area
783,562.00 km2
Land Area
769,632.00 km2
Water Area
13,930.00 km2
Population
83,429,615
Major Cities
Istanbul (15,847,768)
Ankara (5,397,098)
Izmir (3,088,414)
Bursa (2,086,325)
Adana (1,835,895)
Gaziantep (1,804,704)
Konya (1,407,632)
Antalya (1,347,240)
Diyarbakir (1,096,937)
Mersin (1,069,402)
Currency
Turkish liras (TRY)
GDP
$754.41 Billion
GDP Per Capita
$9,042.49
This page was last updated on February 24, 2021
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Turkey - Culture, Cuisine, Religion | Britannica
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Turkey
Table of Contents
Turkey
Table of Contents
Introduction & Quick FactsLandReliefThe northern folded zoneThe southern folded zoneThe central massifThe Arabian platformDrainageRiversLakesSoilsClimateOverviewClimatic regionsPlant and animal lifeVegetationFaunaPeopleEthnic groupsReligionSettlement patternsDemographic trendsEconomyResourcesAgricultureIndustryTradeTransportationGovernment and societyConstitutional frameworkJusticeLocal governmentPolitical processSecurityEducationHealth and welfareCultural lifeDaily lifeWorkDressReligious practiceCuisineSocial roles and kinshipMale and female rolesMarriage and family lifeSocial changeArts and mediaSports and recreationHistoryMustafa Kemal and the Turkish War of Independence, 1919–23The Fundamental Law and abolition of the sultanateDeclaration of the Turkish republicTurkey under Mustafa KemalGovernmentOppositionKemalist policiesTurkey after Kemal “Atatürk”World War II and the postwar era, 1938–50Turkey under the Democrats, 1950–60The economyPolitical repressionsThe military coup of 1960The National Unity CommitteeThe constitution of 1961The ascendancy of the right, 1961–71Political developments, 1970s to ’90sMilitary intervention and coalition governmentsThe 1980sThe 1982 constitutionThe Kurdish conflictThe 1990sRise of the AKP in the 21st centuryAKP challenges Kemalist, military entrenchmentAn emboldened Erdoğan and the AKP face resistanceAKP under pressure: failed coup attempt, crackdown on dissidents, and economic crisisForeign affairs since 1950Early Cold War: Western-oriented policy and membership in NATO and CTOLate Cold War: 1974 Cyprus crisis and balancing relations with the West and the Soviet UnionPost-Cold War: Neoliberalism, attempt to join the European Union, and the “zero problems” doctrineErdoğan era: Clash and cooperation with Russia in regional affairsTurkish involvement in the Arab Spring and the Syrian Civil WarTurkish intervention in the Libyan Civil War2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
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Turkey summary
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Cultural life Istanbul: Grand BazaarThe Grand Bazaar in Istanbul.(more)Göreme National Park: cave dwellingsAbandoned cave dwellings in Cappadocia; the site is now part of Göreme National Park, Turkey.(more)Rose Valley, Cappadocia, TurkeyGöreme, Cappadocia, TurkeyCulturally, as in so many other respects, Turkey sits between East and West, drawing elements from both to produce its own unique blend. The territory that now constitutes the republic has been subject to a striking range of cultural influences; these have left a rich archaeological legacy, still visible in the landscape, from the civilizations of Classical Europe and the Islamic Middle East. Several locations of cultural significance have been designated UNESCO World Heritage sites, including historic areas around Istanbul, the Great Mosque and Hospital of Divriği, the old Hittite capital of Hattusha, the remains at Nemrut Dağ and Xanthos-Letoon, the city of Safranbolu, and the archaeological site of Troy. In addition to these, UNESCO recognized two mixed-interest properties (sites of both cultural and natural significance) in Turkey: the area of Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia, which is known for the traces of Byzantine art extant amid its dramatic rocky landscape, and Hierapolis-Pamukkale, which is known for its terraced basins of unique mineral formations and petrified waterfalls, where ruins of the thermal baths and temples constructed there in the 2nd century bce are still present. Hagia SophiaThe Hagia Sophia rising along the shore of the Bosporus, Istanbul.(more)With the division of the Roman Empire into western and eastern sections, Asia Minor became part of the Byzantine realm (see Byzantine Empire), centred at Constantinople (Istanbul). The rise of Islam in the east led to a division of the peninsula between the Byzantine Christian world and the Islamic Middle East, and it was not until the arrival of the Turks that Asia Minor finally became part of the Islamic world. The Ottoman Empire was multinational and multicultural; the new Turkey established by Atatürk, however, was more homogeneous in language and religion than its predecessor states. Under Atatürk and his followers, Turkey became increasingly secular and Western-oriented, a trend manifested in the reform of the Turkish language, the replacement of the traditional Arabic script by a modified Roman alphabet, and the separation of Islam from the state. Nevertheless, Islam has exerted a profound influence on the relations between the sexes and on family life. The strength of this influence varies between the more- and less-developed regions of the country, between urban and rural populations, and between the social classes. Daily life Work In the rural areas each season has different tasks and activities. Except in the south and west, winter is a period of frost, snow, and social activities. Animals are often kept indoors and fed mainly chopped straw. With the spring thaw, plowing and sowing are soon under way. After a month or so of less-urgent work, the hay harvest is followed immediately by the main grain harvest, a period of intense activity lasting some six to eight weeks; everyone works, some people 16 to 20 hours a day. Most village areas contain weavers, masons, carpenters, and smiths such as tinsmiths. Some villagers go to town for craft services, and a number of craftsmen travel around the villages—particularly specialists, such as sieve makers or sawyers. Safranbolu, Turkey: bazaarA bazaar in Safranbolu, Turkey.(more)It is impossible to summarize in a few words the material culture of the towns and cities, which not long ago were the central part of a great empire and have since been profoundly influenced by European fashions and technology. Most towns, large and small, nevertheless still contain markets where simple lockup shops stand side by side in rows. Usually these are arranged by craft or wares—coppersmiths, jewelers, cobblers, tailors, motor mechanics, and so on. Retailers also are grouped by commodity. The larger towns have become increasingly Westernized, with modern factories, offices, and shops. Large-scale commuting from sprawling suburban areas is typical of the major cities, where it produces traffic congestion, air pollution, and strains on public transportation. Dress traditional Turkish dressTurkish boys in traditional dress.(more)Turkish men have increasingly adopted the styles and sombre colours of European male dress. Fezzes and turbans were abolished by law in 1925, and most peasants now wear cloth caps. The famous Turkish baggy trousers, exceedingly full in the seat, are still quite common in rural areas and among the poorer town dwellers, but the traditional cummerbund and colourful shift or waistcoat are rare. Village women still largely preserve traditional attire. They wear some locally customary combination of baggy trousers, skirts, and aprons. In many areas it is still possible to identify a woman’s town or village and her marital status by her dress; village women in Turkey have never worn a veil, but they have traditionally covered their heads and mouths with a large scarf. This practice has been revived among the more devout urban women, though the scarf is often combined with Western dress. Religious practice For the observant, Islam entails many duties. Men and women are to maintain a state of ritual purity, pray five times a day, fast during the month of Ramadan every year, and strive, if possible, to visit Mecca at least once in their lifetime. Islam provides basic ideas about the nature of morality, charity, transgression, reward and punishment, and relations between men and women, as well as about cleanliness and impurity. Cuisine falafel sandwichEggplant, olives, and yogurt are widely eaten in Turkey and all Middle Eastern countries. Chickpeas are toasted or ground. Lamb is the staple meat throughout the region. One of the most characteristic elements of the cuisines of the Middle East is the offering of an almost unlimited array of small hot and cold appetizers. These are called mazza (Arabic), mezethakia (Greek), or mezelicuri (Romanian), and their ingredients and preparation have developed over the centuries as a result of the confluence of many cultures. baklavaBaklava, a rich dessert of phyllo dough and nuts.(more)bozaBoza or Bosa, traditional Turkish dessert with roasted chickpea.(more)The Turkish influence is still dominant in the countries of the old Ottoman Empire: Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, and other parts of the Balkan region. Vine leaves stuffed with rice and meat are popular. They are called dolma in Turkey. Börek, a turnover filled with meat or cheese, is another favourite. Şişkebabi (shish kebab), skewered mutton or lamb, is enjoyed in all these countries, as is kofte, a lamb patty. Yogurt dishes and a sweet known as halvah are commonly found. A favourite dessert is baklava, a rich pastry filled with nuts and layered with honey or syrup, as is the sugar-dusted jellied confection called lokum (or Turkish delight). Also popular is boza, a thick, fermented malt drink made from corn, wheat, millet, or bulgur (depending on location), with a subtle tart, tangy taste and a very low alcohol content. Social roles and kinship Male and female roles In rural areas the main responsibilities of the men are the heavy agricultural work, looking after the livestock, and making all contacts outside the home, both official and economic, including shopping. Women—widows, for example—might do men’s work, but men never undertake women’s tasks. One consequence of this is that men are more dependent on women than women are on men, and a bereaved widower who has no other adult women in his household may remarry within a few days or weeks. Women are concerned with the care of children and their houses and with the preparation and cooking of food. They are also responsible for milking, caring for the chickens, making cakes of winter fuel from dung and straw, weeding vegetable plots near the village, and reaping barley and other short-stemmed crops. Overall, women are responsible for a high proportion of the agricultural work in addition to their domestic duties. In urban areas the role of women is related to social class. The emancipation of women was among the Westernizing objectives of Atatürkism, and for the urban educated middle and upper classes much has been achieved. Women were given the right to vote in 1930, women were first elected to parliament in 1935, and a woman first held the prime ministership in the 1990s. Women are found in medicine, science, and the arts, and increasing numbers of women work in industry and the service sector. The position of working-class urban women—particularly from the families of recent migrants—and of women in rural areas, however, remains highly traditional. The structure of social relationships is in innumerable ways profoundly affected by the sharp social segregation of men and women. This segregation is related to attitudes toward sex and sexuality, which are often seen as ritually impure and somewhat shameful; for example, sex is a banned topic between close kin, and a young couple is forbidden to show any interest in each other if anyone else, even a member of the household, is present.
为什么土耳其和火鸡都是 turkey? - 知乎
为什么土耳其和火鸡都是 turkey? - 知乎首页知乎知学堂发现等你来答切换模式登录/注册英语土耳其火鸡为什么土耳其和火鸡都是 turkey?土耳其击落俄军战机,那么为什么火鸡和土耳其在英语里是一个单词关注者57被浏览151,750关注问题写回答邀请回答添加评论分享10 个回答默认排序Kaming Lee日语工商管理在读小鲜肉 关注写在最前:文章转载于美国人为啥叫火鸡“土耳其”?你造吗?火鸡的历史其实是一部世界史。这样说虽然有点夸张,但其实也八九不离十。火鸡其实是北美洲土生土长的一种鸟类。但“土耳其”(turkey) 这个名字其实是殖民地时期在贸易和征服过程中产生的一个地理错误。你可能会想到,火鸡的命名很可能来自土耳其这个国家。更准确地说,火鸡这个名字很可能是15、16世纪的土耳其商人取的。“土耳其”(turkey)这个名字究竟是怎么来的,现在还没有定论。语言学家Mario Pei认为,在五个世纪之前,来自商业中心君士坦丁堡(在15中期被奥斯曼土耳其占领)的土耳其人将西非的野生珍珠鸡(the guinea fowl)卖到欧洲市场。于是当时的英国人就称这些非洲的珍珠鸡为“土耳其的鸡”(“turkey cock”)或是“土耳其的鸟”(“turkey coq”),后来这些珍珠鸡就被简称为“土耳其” (turkey)。当英国殖民者到达马萨诸塞州时,他们就把在当地见到的禽类也称为“土耳其”(turkey),尽管他们在美洲大陆上见到的禽类和来自非洲的珍珠鸡并不是同一种禽类。而词源学家Mark Forsyth认为,土耳其商人当时将珍珠鸡从位于非洲东南沿海的马达加斯加带到英国,而与此同时西班牙征服者又将美洲的禽类引进到欧洲,于是人们就将这种美洲的禽类和来自马达加斯加的“土耳其” (turkey)混淆了。另一位语言学家Dan Jurafsky认为, 欧洲人通过马穆鲁克土耳其人(the Mamluk Turks)从埃塞俄比亚进口珍珠鸡,然后又把珍珠鸡和葡萄牙从大西洋运来的北美禽类混为一谈了。珍珠鸡(左)vs 火鸡(右) 图片来源:维基百科让事情更为复杂的是,土耳其人并不把火鸡称为“土耳其”,因为他们知道土耳其没有火鸡。Forsyth解释说:“土耳其人犯了一个与欧洲人完全不同的错误,他们把火鸡称为 ‘印地’ (hindi),因为他们认为火鸡很有可能来自印度。”土耳其人并不是唯一犯这种错的人。法国人最先也将火鸡称为poulet d’Inde(意为“印度的鸡”)。后来法国人就将火鸡简称为“印度”。火鸡在波兰语、希伯来语和加泰罗尼亚语之中也同样被称为“印度”。荷兰人对火鸡的称呼具体得奇葩。他们叫火鸡kalkoen,意为科泽科德。科泽科德是当时印度主要的商业中心。这些名字的来源很可能是因为当时人们误把新大陆认为是印度,也可能是人们认为火鸡贸易会途径印度。那么火鸡在印度又被称为什么呢?在土耳其,火鸡被叫做“印度”,而在印度,火鸡却被叫做“土耳其”。一些印度方言称火鸡为“秘鲁”。葡萄牙人也这么叫。火鸡并非来自秘鲁,但是当西葡的探险者征服新大陆时,火鸡就在葡萄牙非常受欢迎了。西方的殖民扩张让这个问题更加复杂:马来西亚人叫火鸡“荷兰鸡”(ayam blander),而柬埔寨人叫火鸡“法国鸡” (moan barang)。 一些真相论者和语言修正主义者也对火鸡命名的起源展开了讨论。比如在上世纪90年代初期,一场关于“土耳其”(turkey)这个名字可能起源于希伯来语的辩论就发生在《纽约时报》的“致编辑的信”专栏。1992年12月13号,Rabbi Harold M. Kamsler在感恩节主题文章《一只奇怪的鸟》一文的后续报道中写道,火鸡被叫做“土耳其”是因为哥伦布的翻译Luis de Torres。这位翻译是个犹太人,后来改信天主教。Luis de Torres在1492年10月12号写给一位在西班牙的朋友的信中提到了火鸡。他将这种鸟称为tuki,这个词和“土耳其”(turkey)的英文很像。在古希伯来语中,tuki是孔雀的意思,而在现代希伯来语中,是鹦鹉的意思。还有一种更可疑的版本是说哥伦布本人其实是个犹太人,他向西班牙宗教法庭隐藏了自己的身份,但却用自己民族的语言为火鸡命名。但Kamsler的观点遭到了犹太语言研究协会主席David L Gold的坚决反对。Gold写道:“Kamsler的观点并不是他原创的,而是一个在不了解情况的犹太人中广为流传的离奇故事。和其他无数认为希伯来语影响了英语和其他语言的假想一样,这种伪观点在《希伯莱语言研究卷二》中就已经被戳穿了。” 火鸡的学名和它的俗名一样难以理解。它的学名是Meleagris gallopavo,这是个混合名,采用了双命名法。这个名字的第一部分来自希腊神话。在这个神话故事中,女神阿尔特弥斯把墨勒阿革洛斯的姐妹变成了珍珠鸡。名字的第二个部分是个混合词:gallo在拉丁文中是公鸡的意思,而pavo是孔雀的意思。所以火鸡的学名其实是:珍珠鸡—公鸡—孔雀。 回忆起对Mario Pei的采访,美国国家公共电台记者Robert Krulwich提到:“500年来,这种勇敢却不是太聪明的美国鸟类却从来没有过美国名字。” 其实,火鸡的确有许多地道的美国名字,只是美国人从来不用这些名字。毕竟,前阿兹特克和阿兹特克人驯养火鸡的历史超过千年,甚至早于在哥伦布到达新大陆之前。阿兹特克人称火鸡为huehxolotl。火鸡其实有很多的土著名字,包括黑脚族语的omahksipi’kssii,意思是“大鸟”。尽管意思有点模糊,但显然这个词打败了“珍珠鸡—公鸡—孔雀”。编辑于 2016-06-25 23:34赞同 1548 条评论分享收藏喜欢收起魏水华 关注在农业部今年起草的《国家畜禽遗传资源目录》里,狗肉因为“各种原因”离开了这份名单。虽然有争议,但毕竟也只是各执一词的争议而已。但火鸡却神奇地出现在传统禽畜的名单里。没错,就是美国人在感恩节吃的那种又大、又柴的火鸡。对中国人来说,只有过洋节或者尝新的时候才会偶尔吃一次。传统禽畜?确定不是逗我玩?No.1 壹中国人对火鸡,并不是一无所知。我们接触火鸡的时代,也许远远早于建国史不到250年的美国。这种原产于美洲的大型禽类,最早由西班牙人探索世界的舰船带回旧大陆。从一开始,欧洲人就看上了这种味道并不怎么好的家禽。美洲的自然环境与欧洲区别很大,文明发展方向也不尽相同。丰沛的降水、充足的阳光、肥沃的土地和产量巨大的粮食、油料作物,让印第安人完全没必要驯化牛作为耕种工具。在哥伦布登陆之前,美洲大陆所有的牛都处于野生状态。而性格温驯、特别能吃的羊驼、火鸡,则成了首选。在当时内卷严重的欧洲人看来,耗费粮食饲料极大,只是傻长肉的这些新大陆动物饲养性价比太低,而印第安人却觉得:粮食有得是,养起来又不费功夫,为什么不多养点改善伙食呢?另一方面,美洲原住民虽然发展出了高度发达的天文、历法,冶金技术却极其落后。冶金落后,除了武器落后之外,还直接导致了炊具落后、烹饪水平落后。在没有进化出复杂味蕾的时代,人类常常会满足于单纯的饱腹感。火鸡肉厚、又是纯粹的白肉,蛋白质含量极高,随便塞几块就能满足人体长时间的需要。虽然滋味不好,但明火烧烤,加上美洲原产的辣椒调味去腥后,胡乱总能对付。对飘洋过海前来的最早的欧洲拓荒者来说,友善的原住民并不是生存的障碍,饥饿、缺粮才是。印第安人为他们贡献了土豆、玉米,还拿出了顶饱的火鸡,最终帮助白人在这块土地站稳脚跟。所以,感恩节吃火鸡,起初并不是为了好吃,而是来自忆苦思甜的行为艺术——这与今天小学生学农劳动时候吃的红米饭、南瓜汤其实是一回事。有趣的是,随着旧大陆和新大陆连接的不断紧密,各种香料、炊具源源不断地运进了这片处女地。各种牛、羊、鸡肉的烹饪方式被应用于火鸡,剁大块油炸、香草烤、撕碎后丢进色拉里拌……15-16世纪,人类的烹饪已经发展到了很高水平,包括烘焙、烩煮、香煎在内的很多烹饪方式已经成熟,加持到了火鸡身上,也能成就所谓的美食。食材、调味料和烹调同样重要,在任何时代、任何场景下,都是适用的。No.2 贰由于火鸡颜色鲜艳、具备一定的观赏性,很快,它就从美洲肮脏的笼圈里,来到了欧洲、亚洲达官贵人的私家花园里。哥伦布坚持认为自己到达的是印度,他遇见的是印度人。这是今天“印第安人”这个奇怪称呼的来源。而印度人养的鸡,自然也是“印度鸡”。在今天的法语、俄语,波兰语。荷兰语,芬兰语,瑞典语,挪威语,丹麦语等欧洲主流语言中,火鸡依旧保留着哥伦布对它错误的命名——印度鸡或加尔各答鸡。马来西亚人把它称为“荷兰鸡”、柬埔寨人则称为“法国鸡”,都来自殖民宗主国的印象。只有最早致力大航海的西班牙人和葡萄牙人最能修正错误,追本溯源,分别称呼火鸡为“七面鸟”“秘鲁鸡”,多少能看到美洲原住民的源流。但要论最特殊的,是英语和汉语。英语的火鸡是turkey。这个来自中北亚的单词,曾经特指南北朝和隋唐时期中原帝国的劲敌——突厥(Turks)。大约在唐太宗贞观到唐高宗显庆的几十年里,突厥帝国分裂,并被唐王朝消灭。在此之后,突厥人后裔被称为turk,他们构成了今天中亚各国重要的主体民族之一。而自认为继承了突厥衣钵的土耳其,则将国名定为turkey。英国人之所以给火鸡起了“土耳其”的名字,比较普遍的猜测是奥斯曼土耳其帝国时期,来自非洲的珍珠鸡在伊斯坦布尔集中交易。因为珍珠鸡毛色与火鸡相似,英国人弄混了两种生物而搞出的“乌龙”。但事实上,这种提法是经不起推敲的。首先,结合了家鸡、孔雀和珍珠鸡三种禽鸟特点的火鸡,外观辨识度很高,与珍珠鸡的体型相差巨大,不太可能被严谨刻板的英国人搞混。其次,英国击败西班牙与荷兰,逐渐成为世界霸主已经是17世纪之后的事,此时的奥斯曼土耳其国势已经急转直下,与英国的交集并不多。哪怕有交集,也应该是物理距离与之更近的东欧、南欧诸国受影响才对。远在北海的英国人忙着向西、向南航海扩张,没理由与地中海东部尽头的土耳其过多接触。一个更靠谱的猜测是,turkey之名,来自中文的“火鸡”No.3 叁“火鸡”两字,最早见诸于中文文献,是描述郑和下西洋的《瀛涯胜览》。作者描述了马来、印尼丛林里一种凶猛的野生鸟类鹤驼:“大如仙鹤,圆身簇颈,比鹤颈更长。头上有软红冠,似红帽之状。又有二片生于颈中。嘴尖。浑身毛如羊毛稀长,青色。脚长铁黑,爪甚利害,亦能破人腹,肠出即死。好吃炭,遂名火鸡。”虽然字里行间,带有中国人玄幻和夸张的叙事风格,但不难看出,这是一种比珍珠鸡更接近于火鸡的鸟类。稍晚之后,当葡萄牙人的舰船抵达中国南海,带来真正的火鸡之后。当时的中国人想当然地认为,二者是同一种生物。”火鸡“之名从此耳熟能详。在早期接触火鸡的中国南方方言里,“火鸡“二字的发音是for-gai(粤语、客家话), fur-key(赣语、闽南语)。最容易被人忽视的一环是,在当时流行的手写花体字母里,小写的f与t极其相似,容易误会。Turkey的真身应该是furkey。更重要的是,从《瀛涯胜览》成书、葡萄牙人登陆澳门、英国人登陆广东的时间线先后来看,这种猜测是合理的。所以,极有可能,让土耳其背锅数百年的火鸡turkey,其背后真正的大魔王。是闽南语里的火鸡。事实上,这与tea来自闽南语里的“茶“,ketchup来自闽南语里的”鱼露“,都反映了闽广地区率先睁眼看世界的性格;与擅长航海,率先展示中华文化的历史。-END-从这种猜测来看,火鸡抵达中国的时间,应该远远早于1843年,查尔斯.狄更斯在他的小说《圣诞颂歌》里认真描述火鸡配肉酱汁的时间。之所以中国没有推广养殖与食用火鸡,除了这货饭量大、只会傻吃长肉之外。肉质粗糙,不好吃,才是被美食国度嫌弃的最重要原因。发布于 2020-11-26 23:10赞同 6210 条评论分享收藏喜欢